The aim of the present study was to examine the associations between interpersonal violence (IV) experienced in the context of sport by teenagers and three mental health outcomes: self-esteem, psychological distress, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. A convenience sample of 1055 French-Canadian athletes between the ages of 14 and 17 who were participating in an organized sport was recruited to participate in an online survey. Results showed that psychological violence and neglect as well as sexual violence were independently related to lower self-esteem while physical, psychological/neglect, and sexual violence were all independently related to higher psychological distress and PTSD symptoms. Early intervention programs for athletes that experience IV is critical as it may help prevent the development of subsequent mental health issues.
AlexanderK.StaffordA.LewisR. (2011). The experiences of children participating in organised sport in the UK. NSPCC.
2.
BrackenridgeC. (1997). He owned me basically…: Women's experience of sexual abuse in sport. / Il me possedait fondamentalemen,T…: L'experience d'abus sexuel des femmes en sport. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 32(2), 115–130. https://doi.org/10.1177/101269097032002001
3.
ChanS. M.FungT. C. T. (2014). Reliability and validity of K10 and K6 in screening depressive symptoms in Hong Kong adolescents. Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies, 9 (1), 75–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/17450128.2013.861620
4.
EastonS. D. (2019). Childhood disclosure of sexual abuse and mental health outcomes in adulthood: Assessing merits of early disclosure and discussion. Child Abuse & Neglect, 93, 208–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.04.005
5.
FastingK.BrackenridgeC.WalsethK. (2002). Consequences of sexual harassment in sport for female athletes. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 8(2), 37–48. https://doi.org/10.1080/13552600208413338
6.
FastingK.BrackenridgeC.WalsethK. (2007). Women Athletes’ personal responses to sexual harassment in sport. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 19(4), 419–433. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200701599165
7.
FinkelhorD.BrowneA. (1985). The traumatic impact of child sexual abuse: A conceptualization. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 55(4), 530–541. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.1985.tb02703.x
8.
FortierK.ParentS.LessardG. (2020). Child maltreatment in sport: Smashing the wall of silence: A narrative review of physical, sexual, psychological abuses and neglect. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 54(1), 4–7. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-100224
9.
GalloE. A. G.MunhozT. N.Loret de MolaC.MurrayJ. (2018). Gender differences in the effects of childhood maltreatment on adult depression and anxiety: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Child Abuse & Neglect, 79, 107–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.01.003
10.
JayanthiN.PinkhamC.DugasL.PatrickB.LaBellaC. (2013). Sports specialization in young athletes: Evidence-based recommendations. Sports Health, 5 (3), 251–257. https://doi.org/10.1177/1941738112464626
11.
JayanthiN. A.LaBellaC. R.FischerD.PasulkaJ.DugasL. R. (2015). Sports-specialized intensive training and the risk of injury in young athletes: A clinical case-control study. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 43 (4), 794–801. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546514567298
Kallstrom-FuquaA. C.WestonR.MarshallL. L. (2004). Childhood and adolescent sexual abuse of community women: Mediated effects on psychological distress and social relationships. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(6), 980–992.
14.
KavanaghE. J. (2014). The dark side of sport: Athlete narratives on maltreatment in high performance environments. Bournemouth University.
15.
KesslerR. C.AndrewsG.ColpeL. J.HiripiE.MroczekD. K.NormandS. L.WaltersE. E.ZaslavskyA. M. (2002). Short screening scales to monitor population prevalences and trends in non-specific psychological distress. Psychological Medicine, 32(6), 959–976. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291702006074
16.
LangeA.de BeursE.DolanC.LachnitT.SjollemaS.HanewaldG. (1999). Long-term effects of childhood sexual abuse: Objective and subjective characteristics of the abuse and psychopathology in later life. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 187(3), 150–158. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-199903000-00004
17.
LaPradeR. F.AgelJ.BakerJ., Brenner, J. S., Cordaso, F. A., Côté, J., Engebretsen, L., Feeley, B. T., Gould, D., Hainline, B., Hewett, T., Jayanthi, N., Kodner, M. S., Myer, G. D., Nissen, C. W., Philippon, M. J., & Provencher, M. T. (2016). AOSSM early sport specialization consensus statement. Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine, 4(4), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1177/2325967116644241
18.
LeachL. F.HensonR. K.OdomL. R.CagleL. S. (2006). A reliability generalization study of the self-description questionnaire. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 66(2), 285–304. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164405284030
19.
LiuR. T.Jager-HymanS.WagnerC. A.AlloyL. B.GibbB. E. (2012). Number of childhood abuse perpetrators and the occurrence of depressive episodes in adulthood. Child Abuse & Neglect, 36(4), 323–332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.11.007
20.
MarshH. W. (1990). Self Description Questionnaire (SDQ) II: A theoretical and empirical basis for the measurement of multiple dimensions of adolescent self-concept. Psychological Corporation.
21.
MarshH. W.ParadaR. H.AyotteV. (2004). A multidimensional perspective of relations between self-concept (Self Description Questionnaire II) and adolescent mental health (youth self report). Psychological Assessment, 16(1), 27–41. https:/doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.16.1.27
22.
MountjoyM.BrackenridgeC.ArringtonM.BlauwetC.Carska-SheppardA.FastingK.KirbyS.LeahyT.MarksS.MartinK.StarrK.TiivasA.BudgettR. (2016). International Olympic committee consensus statement: Harassment and abuse (non-accidental violence) in sport. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 50(17), 1019–1029. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2016-096121
OhlertJ.RauT.AllroggenM. (2019). Association between sexual violence experiences and well-being and risk for depression in elite athletes Depends on the context of the incidents. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 13(2), 311–329. https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.2019-0008
25.
ParentS.FortierK. (2018). Comprehensive overview of the problem of violence against athletes in sport. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 42(2), 227–246. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193723518759448
26.
ParentS.FortierK.Vaillancourt-MorelM. P.LessardG.GouletC.DemersG.ParadisH.HartillM. (2019). Development and initial factor validation of the violence toward athletes questionnaire (VTAQ) in a sample of young athletes. Society & Leisure, 42(3), 471–486. https://doi.org/10.1080/07053436.2019.1682262
27.
ParentS.LavoieF.ThibodeauM. E.HébertM.BlaisM.TeamP. A. J. (2016). Sexual violence experienced in the sport context by a representative sample of quebec adolescents. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 31(16), 2666–2686. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515580366
28.
PrinsA.OuimetteP.KimerlingR.CameronR. P.HugelshoferD. S.Shaw-HegwerJ.ThrailkillA.GusmanF. D.SheikhJ. I. (2003). The primary care PTSD screen (PC-PTSD): Development and operating characteristics. Primary Care Psychiatry, 9, 9–14. https://doi.org/10.1185/135525703125002360
29.
SennT. E.CareyM. P.Coury-DonigerP. (2001). Self-defining as sexually abused and adult sexual risk behavior: Results from a cross-sectional survey of women attending an STD clinic. Child Abuse & Neglect, 35(5), 353–362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.01.013
30.
StirlingA. E.KerrG. A. (2008). Elite female Swimmers’ experiences of emotional abuse across time. Journal of Emotional Abuse, 7(4), 89–113. https://doi.org/10.1300/J135v07n04_05
31.
StirlingA. E.KerrG. A. (2009). Abused athletes’ perceptions of the coach-athlete relationship. Sport in Society, 12(2), 227–239. https:/doi.org/10.1080/17430430802591019
32.
StirlingA. E.KerrG. A. (2013). The perceived effects of elite athletes’ experiences of emotional abuse in the coach-athlete relationship. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 11(1), 87–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2013.752173
33.
ToftegaardN. J. (2001). The forbidden zone: Intimacy, sexual relations and misconduct in the relationship between coaches and athletes. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 36(2), 165–182. https://doi.org/10.1177/101269001036002003
34.
ToftegaardN. J. (2010). Intimate relations and sexual abuse in danish sport. In BrackenridgeC.RhindD. (Eds.), Elite child athlete welfare: International perspectives (pp. 93–100). Brunel University Press.
35.
TrickettP. K.NollJ. G.PutnamF. W. (2011). The impact of sexual abuse on female development: Lessons from a multigenerational, longitudinal research study. Development and Psychopathology, 23(2), 453–476. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579411000174
36.
UllmanS. E. (2007). Relationship to perpetrator, disclosure, social reactions, and PTSD symptoms in child sexual abuse survivors. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 16(1), 19–36. https://doi.org/10.1300/J070v16n01_02
37.
Vaillancourt-MorelM. P.GodboutN.BédardM.CharestE.BriereJ.SabourinS. (2016). Emotional and sexual correlates of child sexual abuse as a function of self-definition status. Child Maltreatment, 21(3), 228–238. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559516656069
38.
VertommenT.KampenJ.Schipper-van VeldhovenN.UziebloK.Van Den EedeF. (2018). Severe interpersonal violence against children in sport: Associated mental health problems and quality of life in adulthood. Child Abuse & Neglect, 76, 459–468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.12.013
39.
VertommenT.Schipper-van VeldhovenN.WoutersK.KampenJ. K.BrackenridgeC.RhindD.NeelsK.Van Den EedeF. (2016). Interpersonal violence against children in sport in the Netherlands and Belgium. Child Abuse & Neglect, 51, 223–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.10.006
