This overview briefly summarizes the cellular pathobiology of experimental atherosclerosis and is then followed by a consideration of how 3 major risk factors interact with the hypothesized pathogenetic process. First, since hemodynamics and blood flow influence the localization of atherosclerotic plaques, possible mechanisms and directions of research are considered. Secondly, the recent hypothesis relating the oxidation of LDL to several of the early processes of atherogenesis is briefly discussed in view of the fact that hyperlipidemia is a major risk factor. The possibility that subsets of LDL and lipoproteins other than LDL might be involved is also discussed. Family history is the last of the 3 contributors to atherosclerosis reviewed and some prototypes of gene abnormalities are considered. Finally, the needs and prospects of future research are summarized.
AldersonL.M., EndemannG., LindseyS., PronczukA., HooverR.L., and HayesK.C. (1986). LDL enhances monocyte adhesion to endothelial cells in vitro.Am. J. Pathol.123: 334–342.
2.
AustinM.A., BreslowJ.A., HennekensC.H., BuringJ.E., WillettW.C., and KraussR.M. (1988). Low-density lipoprotein subclass patterns and risk of myocardial infarction.J. Am. Med. Assoc.260: 1917–1921.
3.
AustinM.A., KingM-C, VranizanK.M., NewmanB., and KraussR.M. (1988). Inheritance of low-density lipoprotein subclass patterns: Results of complex segregation analysis.Am. J. Hum. Genet.43: 838–846.
4.
BendittE.P., BarrettT., and McDougallJ.K. (1983). Viruses in the etiology of atherosclerosis.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA80: 6386–6389.
5.
BendittE.P., and BendittJ.M. (1973). Evidence for a monoclonal origin of human atherosclerotic plaques.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA70: 1753–1756.
6.
BergK. (1983). Genetics of coronary heart disease. In: Progress in Medical Genetics, Vol. V, SteinbergA.G., BearnA.G., MotulskyA.R., and ChildsB (eds). W. B. SaundersPhiladelphia, PA, pp. 35–90.
7.
BlankenhornD.H., NessinS.A., JohnsonR.L., San MarcoM.E., AzenS.P., and Cashen-HemphillC. (1987). Beneficial effects of combined colestipol-niacin therapy on coronary atherosclerosis and coronary venous bypass grafts.J. Am. Med. Assoc.257: 3233–3240.
8.
BreslowJ.L. (1989). Genetic basis of lipoprotein disorders.J. Clin. Invest.84: 373–380.
9.
BreslowJ.L., and ZannisV.I. (1986). Genetic variation in apolipoprotein E and type III hyperlipoproteinemia.Atheroscler. Res.14: 30–52.
10.
CamejoG. (1982). The interaction of lipids and lipoproteins with the intracellular matrix of arterial tissue: Its possible role in atherogenesis.Adv. Lipid Res.19: 1–53.
11.
CarewT.E., SchwenkeD.C., and SteinbergD. (1987). Antiatherogenic effect of probucol unrelated to its hypocholesterolemic effect: Evidence that anti-oxidants in vivo can selectively inhibit low density lipoprotein degradation in macrophage rich fatty streaks and slow progression of atherosclerosis in the Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbit.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA84: 7725–7729.
12.
CastellotJ.J.Jr., FavreauL.V., KarnovskyM.J., and RosenbergR.D. (1982). Inhibition of vascular smooth muscle cell growth by endothelial cell-derived heparin.J. Biol. Chem.257: 11256–11260.
13.
Chamley-CampbellJ.H., CampbellG.R., and RossR. (1981). Phenotype dependent response of cultured aortic smooth muscle to serum mitogens.J. Cell. Biol.89: 379–383.
14.
ChappellD.A. (1988). Pre-β-very low density lipoproteins as precursors of β-very low density lipoproteins.J. Clin. Invest.82: 628–639.
15.
ChecovichW.J., FitchW.L., KraussR.M., SmithM.P., RapaczJ., SmithC.L., and AttieA.D. (1988). Defective catabolism and abnormal composition of low-density lipoproteins from mutant pigs with hypercholesterolemia.Biochemistry27: 1934–1941.
16.
CornhillJ.F., BarrettW.A., HerderickE.E., MahleyR.W., and FryD.L. (1985). Topographic study of sudanophilic lesions in cholesterol fed minipigs by image analysis.Arteriosclerosis5: 415–426.
17.
CushingS.D., BerlinerJ.A., ValenteA.J., TerritoM.C., NavabM., ParhamiF., GerrityR., SchwartzC.J., and FogelmanA.M. (1990). Minimally modified low density lipoprotein induces monocyte chemotactic protein 1 in human endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA87: 5134–5138.
18.
CushingG.L., GaubatzJ.W., NavaM.L., BurdickB.J., BocanT.M.A., GuytonJ.R., WeilbaecherD., DeBakeyM.E., LawrieG.M., and MorrisettJ.D. (1989). Quantitation and localization of apolipoproteins(a) and B in coronary artery bypass vein grafts resected at re-operation.Arteriosclerosis9: 593–603.
19.
DaviesP.F. (1988). Endothelial cells, hemodynamic forces and the localization of atherosclerosis. In: Endothelial Cells, Vol. II, RyanU.S. (ed). CRC PressBoca Raton, FL, pp. 123–139.
20.
DaviesP.F., DeweyC.F., BussolariS.R., GordonE.J., and GimbroneM.A.Jr. (1984). Influence of hemodynamic forces on vascular endothelial function: In vitro studies of shear stress and pinocytosis in cultured bovine aortic endothelial cells.J. Clin. Invest.73: 1121–1129.
DaviesP.F., TruskeyG.A., WarrenH.B., O'ConnorS.E., and EisenhaureB.H. (1985). Metabolic cooperation between vascular endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells in co-culture: Changes in low density lipoprotein metabolism.J. Cell. Biol.101: 871–879.
23.
DeuelT.F., SeniorR.M., HuangJ.S., and GriffinG.L. (1982). Chemotaxis of monocytes and neutrophils to platelet-derived growth factor.J. Clin. Invest.69: 1046–1049.
24.
DullR.O., and DaviesP.F. (Personal communication.)
25.
EndemannG., PronczukA., FriedmanG., LindseyS., AldersonL., and HayesK.C. (1987). Monocyte adherence to endothelial cells in vitro is increased by β-VLDL.Am. J. Pathol.126: 1–6.
26.
FaggiottoA., and RossR. (1984). Studies of hypercholesterolemia in the nonhuman primate: II. Fatty streak conversion to fibrous plaque.Arteriosclerosis4: 341–356.
27.
FaggiottoA., RossR., and HarkerL. (1984). Studies of hypercholesterolemia in the nonhuman primate. I. Changes that lead to fatty streak formation.Arteriosclerosis4: 323–340.
28.
FritzeL.M., ReillyC.F., and RosenbergR.D. (1985). An antiproliferative heparin sulfate species produced by post-confluent smooth muscle.J. Cell. Biol.100: 1041–1049.
29.
GetzG.S. (1990). The involvement of lipoproteins in atherogenesis: Evolving concepts.Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci.598: 17–28.
30.
GetzG.S., MazzoneT., SoltysP., and BatesS.R. (1988). Atherosclerosis and apoprotein E: An enigmatic relationship.Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med.112: 1048–1055.
31.
GlagovS., WeisenbergE., ZarinsC.K., StankunaviciusR., and KolettisG. (1987). Compensatory enlargement of human atherosclerotic coronary arteries.N. Engl. J. Med.316: 1371–1375.
32.
GlagovS., and ZarinsC.K. (1983). Quantitating atherosclerosis: Problems of definition. In: Clinical Diagnosis of Atherosclerosis: Quantitative Methods of Analysis, BondM.G., InsullW, GlagovS., ChandlerA.B., and CornhillF (eds). Springer-VerlagNew York, pp. 11–35.
GofmanJ.W., LindgrenF., ElliotH., MantzW., HewittJ., StrisowerB., HerringV., and LyonT.P. (1950). The role of lipids and lipoproteins in atherosclerosis.Science111: 166–171.
35.
GoldsteinJ.L., and BrownM.S. (1983). Familial hypercholesterolemia. In: The Metabolic Basis of Inherited Disease, 5th ed., StanburyJ.B., WyngaardenJ.B., FredricksonD.S., GoldsteinJ.L., BrownM.S. (eds). McGraw-HillNew York, pp. 672–712.
36.
GownA.M., TsukadaT., and RossR. (1986). Human atherosclerosis. II. Immunocytochemical analysis of the cellular composition of human atherosclerotic lesions.Am. J. Pathol.125: 191–207.
37.
GrabowskiE.F., JaffeE.A., and WeksterB.B. (1985). Prostacyclin production by cultured endothelial cell monolayers exposed to step increases in shear stress.J. Lab. Clin. Med.105: 36–43.
38.
HaberlandM.E., FlessG., ScanuA.M., and FogelmanA.M. (1989). Modification of Lp(a) by malondialdehyde leads to avid uptake by human-monocyte macrophage.Circulation80: II–163.
39.
HaberlandM.E., and FogelmanA.M. (1987). The role of altered lipoproteins in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis.Am. Heart J.113: 573–577.
40.
HajjarK.A., GavishD., BreslowJ.L., and NachmanR.L. (1989). Lipoprotein(a) modulation of endothelial cell surface fibrinolysis and its potential role in atherosclerosis.Nature339: 303–305.
41.
HajjarD.P., MarcusA.J., and HajjarK.A. (1987). Interactions of arterial cells. Studies on the mechanisms of endothelial cell modulation of cholesterol metabolism in co-cultured smooth muscle cells.J. Biol. Chem.262: 6976–6981.
42.
HavelR.J., YamadaN., and ShamesD.M. (1989). Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbit: Animal model for familial hypercholesterolemia.Arteriosclerosis9: 33–38.
43.
HenriksenT., MahoneyE.M., and SteinbergD. (1981). Enhanced macrophage degradation of low density lipoprotein previously incubated with cultured endothelial cells: Recognition by receptor for acetylated low density lipoproteins.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA78: 6499–6503.
44.
HerbertP.N., AssmannG., GottoA.M.Jr., and FredricksonD.S. (1983). Familial lipoprotein deficiency: Abetalipoproteinemia, hypobetalipoproteinemia and Tangier disease. In: Metabolic Basis of Inherited Disease, 5th ed., StanburyJ.B., WyngaardenJ.B., FredricksonD.S., GoldsteinJ.L., BrownM.S. (eds). McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, pp. 589–621.
45.
HobbsH.H., LeitersdorfE., CallowayC., CryerD., BrownM.S., and GoldsteinJ.L. (1989). Evidence for a dominant gene that suppresses hypercholesterolemia in a family with defective LDL receptors.J. Clin. Invest.84(2): 656–664.
46.
HoeflerG., HarnoncourtF., PaschkeE., MirtlW., PfeifferK.H., and KostnerG.M. (1988). Lipoprotein Lp(a): A risk factor for myocardial infarction.Arteriosclerosis8: 398–401.
47.
HoffH.F., and GaubatzJ.W. (1982). Isolation, purification, and characterization of a lipoprotein containing apo B from human aorta.Atherosclerosis42: 273–297.
48.
HurtE., and CamejoG. (1987). Effect of arterial proteoglycans on the interaction of LDL with human monocyte derived macrophages.Atherosclerosis67: 115–126.
49.
InnerarityT.L., ArnoldK.S., WeisgraberK.H., and MahleyR.W. (1986). Apolipoprotein E is the determinant that mediates the receptor uptake of β-very low density lipoproteins by mouse macrophages.Arteriosclerosis6: 114–122.
50.
KhooJ.C., MahoneyE.M., and WitztumJ.L. (1981). Secretion of lipoprotein lipase by macrophages in culture.J. Biol. Chem.256: 7105–7108.
51.
KhooJ.C., MillerE., McLoughlinP., and SteinbergD. (1988). Enhanced macrophage uptake of low density lipoprotein after self-aggregation.Arteriosclerosis8: 348–358.
52.
KitaT., NaganoY., YokodeM., IshiiK., KumeN., OoshimaA., YoshidaH., and KawaiC. (1987). Probucol prevents the progression of atherosclerosis in Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbit, an animal model for familial hypercholesterolemia.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA84: 5928–5931.
53.
KooC., Wernette-HammondM.E., and InnerarityT.L. (1986). Uptake of canine beta-very low density lipoproteins by mouse peritoneal macrophages is mediated by a low density lipoprotein receptor.J. Biol. Chem.261: 11194–11201.
54.
KowalR.C., HerzJ., GoldsteinJ.L., EsserV., and BrownM.S. (1989). Low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein mediates uptake of cholesteryl esters derived from apoprotein E-enriched lipoproteins.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA86: 5810–5814.
55.
KraussR.M., WilliamsP.T., BrensikeJ., DetreK.M., LindgrenF.T., KelseyS.F., VranizanK., and LevyR.I. (1987). Intermediate-density lipoproteins and progression of coronary artery disease in hypercholesterolaemic men.Lancetii: 62–66.
56.
KuD.N., ZarinsC.K., GiddensD.P., and GlagovS. (1985). Pulsatile flow and atherosclerosis in the human carotid bifurcation: Positive correlation between plaque localization and low and oscillating shear stress.Arteriosclerosis5: 292–302.
57.
Lopes-VirellaM.F., KleinR.L., LyonsT.J., StevensonH.C., and WitztumJ.L. (1988). Glycosylation of low density lipoprotein enhances cholesteryl ester synthesis in human monocyte derived macrophages.Diabetes37: 550–557.
MahleyR.W. (1982). Atherogenic hyperlipoproteinemia: The cellular and molecular biology of plasma lipoproteins altered by dietary fat and cholesterol.Med. Clin. North Am.66: 375–402.
60.
MazzoneT., GumpH., DillerP., and GetzG.S. (1987). Macrophage free cholesterol content regulates apolipoprotein E synthesis.J. Biol. Chem.262: 11657–11662.
61.
McCarthyB.J., SariaL., LudwigE.M., InnerarityT.L., GrundyS.M., and VegaG.L., MahleyR.W., and WeisgraberK.H. (1989). An arginine 3500-glutamine mutation in familial defective apo B100 subjects with LDL defective in binding to the apo B, E (LDL) receptor.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA86: 587–591.
62.
McLeanJ.W., TomlinsonJ.E., KuangW.J., EatonD.L., ChenE.Y., FlessG.M., ScanuA.M., and LawnR.M. (1987). cDNA sequence of human apolipoprotein(a) is homologous to plasminogen.Nature330: 132–137.
63.
MitsumataM., Fischer-DzogaK., GetzG.S., and WisslerR.W. (1988). Sequential change of DNA synthesis in cultured aortic smooth muscle cells stimulated by hyperlipidemic serum.Exp. Mol. Path.48: 24–36.
64.
MorelD.W., DiCorletoP.E., and ChrisholmG.M. (1984). Endothelial and smooth muscle cells alter low density lipoprotein in vitro by free radical oxidation.Arteriosclerosis4: 357–364.
65.
MunroJ.M., and CotranR.S. (1988). The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: Atherogenesis and inflammation.Lab. Invest.58: 249–261.
66.
MuslinerT.A., and KraussR.M. (1988). Lipoprotein subspecies and risk of coronary disease.Clin. Chem.34: B78–B83.
67.
NavabM., HoughG.P., BerlinerJ.A., FrankJ.A., FogelmanA.M., HaberlandM.E., and EdwardsP.A. (1986). Rabbit beta-migrating very low density lipoprotein increases endothelial macromolecular transport without altering electrical resistance.J. Clin. Invest.78: 389–397.
68.
NavabM., HoughG.P., StevensonL.W., DrinkwaterD.C., LaksH., and FogelmanA.M. (1988). Monocyte migration into the subendothelial space of a coculture of adult human aortic endothelial and smooth muscle cells.J. Clin. Invest.82: 1853–1863.
69.
NordestgaardB.G., StenderS., and KjeldsenK. (1988). Reduced atherogenesis in cholesterol-fed diabetic rabbits: Giant lipoproteins do not enter the arterial wall.Arteriosclerosis8: 421–428.
70.
NorumR.A., LakierJ.B., GoldsteinS., AngelA., GoldbergR.B., BlockW.D., NoflzeD.K., DolphinP.J., EdelglassJ., BogoradD.D., and AlaupovicP. (1982). Familial deficiency of apolipoproteins A-I and C-III and precocious coronary artery disease.N. Engl. J. Med.306: 1513–1519.
71.
OlesenS.P., ClaphamD.E., and DaviesP.F. (1988). Hemodynamic shear stress activates a K+ current in vascular endothelial cells.Nature331: 168–170.
72.
OwensG.K., GeisterferA.A., YangY.W., and KomoriyaA. (1988). Transforming growth factor β induced growth inhibition and cellular hypertrophy in cultured vascular smooth muscle cells.J. Cell. Biol.107: 771–780.
73.
PalinskiW., RosenfeldM.E., Yla-HerttualaS., GurtnerG.C., SocherS.S., ButlerS.W., ParthasarathyS., CarewT.E., SteinbergD., and WitztumJ.L. (1989). Low density lipoprotein undergoes oxidative modification in vivo.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA86: 1372–1376.
74.
ParthasarathyS., KhooJ.C., MillerE., BarnettJ., WitztumJ.L., and SteinbergD. (1990). Low density lipoprotein rich in oleic acid is protected against oxidative modification: Implications for dietary prevention of atherosclerosis.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA87: 3894–3898.
75.
ParthasarathyS., WielandE., and SteinbergD. (1989). A role for endothelial cell lipoxygenase in the oxidative modification of low density lipoprotein.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA86: 1046–1050.
76.
ParthasarathyS., YoungS.G., WitztumJ.L., PittmanR.C., and SteinbergD. (1986). Probucol inhibits oxidative modification of low density lipoprotein.J. Clin. Invest.77: 641–644.
77.
PatschJ.R., KarlinJ.B., ScottL.W., SmithL.C., and GottoA.M.Jr. (1983). Inverse relationship between blood levels of high density lipoprotein subfraction 2 in magnitude of postprandial lipemia.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA80: 1449–1453.
78.
PennA., GarteS.J., WarrenL., NestaD., and MindichB. (1986). Transforming gene in human atherosclerotic plaque DNA.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA83: 7951–7955.
79.
PoberJ.S. (1988). Cytokine mediated activation of vascular endothelium: Physiology and pathology.Am. J. Pathol.133: 425–433.
80.
PoberJ.S., BevilacquaM.P., MendrickD.L., LapierreL.A., FiersW., and GimbroneM.A.Jr. (1986). Two distinct monokines, IL-1 and TNF, each independently induce biosynthesis and transient expression of the same antigen on the surface of cultured vascular endothelial cells.J. Immunol.136: 1680–1692.
81.
PolacekD., ByrneR.E., and ScanuA.M. (1988). Modification of low density lipoproteins by polymorphonuclear cell elastase leads to enhanced uptake of human monocyte-derived macrophages via the low density lipoprotein receptor pathway.J. Lipid Res.29: 797–808.
82.
RainwaterD.L., ManisG.S., and VandeBergJ.L. (1989). Hereditary and dietary effects on apolipoprotein(a) isoforms and Lp(a) in baboons.J. Lipid Res.30: 549–558.
83.
RajavashisthT.B., AndalibiA., TerritoM.C., BerlinerJ.A., NavabM., FogelmanA.M., and LusisA.J. (1990). Induction of endothelial cell expression of granulocyte and macrophage colony-stimulating factors by modified low density lipoproteins.Nature344: 254–257.
84.
RaoD.C. (1985). Application of path analysis in human genetics. In: Multi-variate Analysis VI, KrishnaiahP.R. (ed). North Holland Publishing CompanyNew York, pp. 467–484.
85.
RathM., NiendorfA., ReblinT., DietelM., KrebberH-J, and BeisiegelU. (1989). Detection and quantification of lipoprotein(a) in the arterial wall of 107 coronary bypass patients.Arteriosclerosis9: 579–592.
86.
RemuzziA., DeweyC.F., DaviesP.F., and GimbroneM.A. (1984). Orientation of endothelial cells in shear fields in vitro.Biorheology21: 617–630.
87.
RogersK.M., HooverR.L., CastellotJ.J., RobinsonJ.M., and KarnovskyM.J. (1986). Dietary cholesterol-induced changes in macrophage characteristics: Relationship to atherosclerosis.Am. J. Pathol.125: 284–291.
88.
RossA.C., and ZilversmitD.B. (1977). Chylomicron remnant cholesteryl esters as the major constituent of very low density lipoproteins in plasma of cholesterol-fed rabbits.J. Lipid Res.18: 169–181.
89.
SchaeferE.J., HeatonW.H., WetzelM.G., and BrewerH.B. (1982). Plasma apolipoprotein A-I absence associated with a marked reduction of high density lipoprotein and premature coronary artery disease.Arteriosclerosis2: 16–26.
90.
SchwartzS.M., and BendittE.P. (1976). Clustering of replicating cells in aortic endothelium.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA73: 651–653.
91.
SeifertR.A., SchwartzS.M., and Bowen-PopeD.F. (1984). Developmentally regulated production of platelet-derived growth factor-like molecules.Nature311: 669–671.
92.
ShimokadoK., RainesE.W., MadtesD.K., BarrettT.B., BendittE.P., and RossR. (1985). A significant part of macrophage-derived growth factor consists of at least two forms of PDGF.Cell43: 277–286.
93.
SingC.F., and DavignonJ. (1985). The role of apolipoprotein E polymorphism in determining normal plasma lipid and lipoprotein variation.Am. J. Hum. Genet.37: 268–285.
94.
SoltysP.A., GumpH., HennessyL., MazzoneT., CareyK.D., McGillH.C., GetzG.S., and BatesS.R. (1988). Hepatic perfusate very low density lipoproteins obtained from fat-fed nonhuman primates stimulate cholesterol esterification in macrophages.J. Lipid Res.29: 191–201.
95.
StaryH.C. (1989). Evolution and progression of atherosclerotic lesions in coronary arteries of children and young adults.Arteriosclerosis9: 19–32.
96.
SteinbergD. (1988). Metabolism of lipoproteins and their role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. In: Atherosclerosis Reviews, Vol. 18, StokerJ.III, and ManciniM (eds). Raven PressNew York, pp. 1–23.
97.
SteinbergD., ParthasarathyS., CarewT.E., KhooJ.C., and WitztumJ.L. (1989). Modifications of low density lipoprotein that increase its atherogenicity.N. Engl. J. Med.320: 915–924.
98.
TalukderN., GiddensD.P., and VitoR.P. (1983). Quantitative flow visualization studies in a carotid artery bifurcation model. In: 1983 Biomechanics Symposium, AMD-Vol. 56, FED-Vol. 1. American Society of Mechanical EngineersNew York, pp. 165–168.
99.
TerritoM.C., BerlinerJ.A., AlmadaL., RamirezR., and FogelmanA.M. (1989). β-very low density lipoprotein pretreatment of endothelial monolayers increases monocyte adhesion.Arteriosclerosis9: 824–828.
100.
TerritoM., BerlinerJ.A., and FogelmanA.M. (1984). Effect of monocyte migration on low density lipoprotein transport across aortic endothelial cell monolayers.J. Clin. Invest.74: 2279–2284.
101.
UtermannG. (1986). The apo E system: Genetic control of plasma lipoprotein concentration.Adv. Exp. Med. & Biol.201: 262–272.
102.
UtermannG. (1989). The mysteries of lipoprotein(a).Science246: 904–910.
103.
Van LentenB.J., FogelmanA.M., JacksonR.L., ShapiroS., HaberlandM.E., and EdwardsP.A. (1985). Receptor-mediated uptake of remnant lipoproteins by cholesterol-loaded human monocyte-macrophages.J. Biol. Chem.260: 8783–8788.
104.
WangJ.M., CollelaS., AllavenaP., and MantovaniA. (1987). Chemotactic activity of human recombinant granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor.Immunology60: 439–444.
105.
WechezakA.R., ViggersR.F., and SaurageL.R. (1985). Fibronectin and F-actin redistribution in cultured endothelial cells exposed to shear stress.Lab. Invest.53: 639–647.
106.
WisslerR.W., and VesselinovitchD. (1983). Combined effects of cholestyramine and probucol on regression of atherosclerosis in rhesus monkey aortas.Appl. Pathol.1: 89–96.
107.
WitztumJ.L., SteinbrecherV.P., KesaniemiY.A., and FisherM. (1984). Autoantibodies to glucosylated proteins in the plasma of patients with diabetes mellitus.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA81: 3204–3208.
108.
WrightH.P. (1972). Mitosis patterns in aortic endothelium.Atherosclerosis15: 93–100.
109.
YamamotoA., KamiyaT., YamamuraT., YokoyamaS., HoriguchiY., FunahashiT., KawaguchiA., MiyakeY., BeppuS., IshikawaK., MatsuzawaY., and TakaichiS. (1989). Clinical features of familial hypercholesterolemia.Arteriosclerosis9: 66–74.
110.
YamamuraT., YamamotoA., HiramoriK., and NambS. (1984). A new isoform of apo E- Apo E5-associated with hyperlipidemia and atherosclerosis.Atherosclerosis50: 159–172.
111.
YomantasS., EinerV.M., SchaffnerT., and WisslerR.W. (1984). Immunohistochemical localization of apolipoprotein B in human atherosclerotic lesions.Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med.108: 374–378.
112.
ZarinsC.K., GiddensD.P., BharadvajB.K., SottiuraiV.S., MabonR.F., and GlagovS. (1983). Carotid bifurcation atherosclerosis: Quantitative correlation of plaque location with flow velocity profiles and wall shear stress.Circ. Res.53: 502–514.
113.
ZilversmitD.B. (1973). A proposal linking atherogenesis to the interaction of endothelial lipoprotein lipase with triglyceride-rich lipoproteins.Circ. Res.33: 633–638.
