Abstract
In modern times, where imagined states of the world shape expectations and motivate actions, driven as much by dreams, emotions, and dystopias as by calculation, organizational actors known as ‘engines of imagination’ wield significant power to shape and control the future (Beckert, 2021). At the same time, organizations face mounting pressure to address persistent inequalities, misogyny, racism and the risks of the Anthropocene, which has led to the questioning of their capacity for scalable and systemic transformation and the underlying assumptions of their forms and practices (Ergene, Banerjee, & Hoffman, 2021). Recognizing the ongoing impact of colonialism on Western theories and practices of organizations creates opportunities for envisioning alternative futures that prioritize environmental and social justice over profits (Banerjee & Arjaliès, 2021). Rubenstein’s book Astrotopia provides valuable insights into the subject at hand. Examining the pervasive phenomenon of the NewSpace race, Rubenstein argues that both the mythologies driven by organizational actors, and the bestowal of ownership of space to organizational actors on Earth, represent colonial and imperial principles. This analysis serves as a platform to propose an alternative vision for a more equitable, sustainable and responsible future on and beyond our planet.
This NewSpace race is led by figures typically seen as secular, such as billionaires Jeff Bezos and Elon Musk, yet it has intriguing resemblances to the historical imperial endeavours on Earth. The latter were propelled by the collaboration of imperial Christianity and European expansionism, leveraging religion to advance a scientifically prejudiced agenda and legitimize practices such as colonization, cultural integration and the exploitation of native populations. The vision driving the escalating NewSpace race similarly hinges on a mythology rooted in the fear of impending doom (on Earth) and the promise of humanity’s salvation elsewhere (in space). The book draws a connection between the imperial ‘doctrine of discovery’ and the NewSpace claim of dominion over space. Rubenstein introduces the concept of the ‘Canaan complex’, the fallacious belief, rooted in the Hebrew Bible and justified by the Church since the fifteenth century, setting out the divine authority for certain individuals to claim and exploit a new ‘promised land’, despite it already being inhabited. She traces evidence of how this has historically driven justifications for colonialism and suppression of the natural world. Astrotopia compellingly argues that space exploration is commonly approached with the same mythology, with individuals on Earth awarded legitimacy to reduce space to a mere resource to be exploited. These mythologies permeate scientific knowledge (NASA and academia), technological advancement (private sector industry), economic investment (congressional appropriations and venture capital) and military support (Space Force), binding all these efforts together. Rubenstein illustrates how a sense of divinely endorsed humanism and benevolent universalism provides a comforting veneer for all involved.
The mythologies underpinning the NewSpace race in the West are, Rubenstein argues, nothing new. During the Cold War era, America and Soviet space exploration projects became a race between opposing political systems, in the West represented as the pursuit of the freedom that Soviet communism sought to destroy and an endeavour for the salvation of all humankind. More recently, Donald Trump’s rhetoric around America as a ‘frontier nation’ called to settle new frontiers in space and embrace its ‘manifest destiny in the stars’.
The increasing involvement of the private sector in the 20th-century space industry has however increasingly formalized the bestowal of ownership of space on organizational actors on Earth. In 2011, Obama terminated the government-managed space shuttle programme, drawing a parallel between the space sector and transportation sectors such as aeroplanes, buses and trains, and suggesting that private sector management of space would be more effective. The passage of the Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act in 2015 formally grants US citizens, including corporations, the rights to keep, sell and transfer resources recovered from celestial bodies such as the moon, asteroids, or Mars.
This context established, Rubenstein goes on to outline the deep tension between perceptions of space as a resource and as a source of wonder. Drawing insights from feminist, Indigenous and Afrofuturist musicians and authors, the text reminds us of how space captivates us and stirs our excitement and argues that space is the realm where art, science, literature, technology and religion converge and clash, evoking our most poetic imaginings and calculated pursuits with boundless potential for novelty and fascination. While it may seem detached from the plight of Earth, with no humans, animals, or known living beings, Rubenstein argues it is vital to recognize that celestial bodies possess geological formations and historical significance just as Earth does. Indeed, for billions of years, space has boasted ethereal planets, moons, constellations and stars. Indigenous peoples on Earth have relied on the heavens to comprehend the cycles of seasons and their profound connection.
However, our skies, our heritage, have been irrevocably altered. Immeasurable damage is being inflicted by the NewSpace race in the name of exploration and freedom. This includes the colossal amount of space debris that now litters the cosmos. As of 2021, SpaceX had launched over 1400 satellites into orbit, with plans to add another 42,000 by mid-2027. In addition, there are over 26 large objects orbiting the Earth (excluding satellites), along with approximately 34,000 objects larger than ten centimetres, 900,000 objects between one and ten centimetres and 128 million objects between one millimetre and one centimetre. The book also offers a comprehensive account of terrestrial pollution, one of the most striking images being the trails left by nineteen Starlink satellites across the nocturnal sky (p. 117).
While the NewSpace race asserts that space provides an opportunity for salvation, Rubenstein compellingly highlights that there is little that is genuinely new about NewSpace. The frustrating aspect of the space barons’ endeavours is their juxtaposition of impressive engineering achievements with a lack of imaginative vision. Behind their grandiose rhetoric and populist pledges, Rubenstein asserts, lies a mundane justification: if we wish to maintain our current way of life, our only option is to exploit another place. Throughout history, space has served as an endless source of inspiration and fantasies, fuelling our imaginations and enabling us and our children to envision a better world. Yet without a significant imaginative reset, humanity risks repeating its imperialist and colonialist past, this time endangering the entire universe – aligning with recent research in organizational studies that critically examines the role of contemporary Western imaginaries (such as the Anthropocene and Gaia) in addressing the ecological crisis (e.g. Banerjee & Arjaliès, 2021).
The final section of the book explores ethical ways of envisioning the future in space, considering alternative options amid current turmoil. She argues that the key to halting environmental degradation on Earth and avoiding its repetition in space lies in rejecting the darker aspects of Christianity, rationality and profit-driven motives. Instead, embracing the benevolent and life-affirming worldviews of Indigenous, Afrofuturist and feminist thought is crucial. Rubenstein explores the works of speculative fiction and science fiction authors, particularly those from marginalized communities, including NK Jemisin. These communities, due to their marginalization, exploitation and enslavement, she argues, have already experienced a post-apocalyptic era and possess valuable ideas about alternative modes of existence. Drawing insights from these authors, Rubenstein reminds us that the true creators of other worlds are those who stay and confront reality, while those who seek escape refuse to acknowledge other possibilities. She encourages us to explore the works of such authors to envision alternative forms of community on Earth, grounded in principles of kinship and mutual care.
At its core, the book echoes the words of Hannah Arendt, who stated that the Earth is the very essence of the human condition. In other words, humanity is inherently tied to its connection with the Earth. For instance, the night sky, now marred by satellites and space debris, belongs to everyone, and it is our duty to safeguard it for future generations. The challenge at hand is to demonstrate that alternative worlds are possible on Earth, dismantling the false dichotomy between doomsday on this planet and salvation on Mars which not only diverts attention from Earth’s problems but also dehumanizes indigenous peoples and exploits and destroys other living beings in the process. This aligns with recent organizational research that explores how the prevailing Western worldview contributes to environmental destruction (e.g. De Cock, Nyberg, & Wright, 2021). In these political trajectories, a linear continuation of our current lifestyle driven by technological advancements is justified by the notion of progress, with a particular past dictating the future. Yet, as Rubenstein stresses, marginalized communities bear the brunt of this presumed progress, their voices silenced and their past undervalued. Envisioning an alternative future is undoubtedly challenging. For many it seems easier to imagine a life without air than an existence without their mobile phones.
Rubenstein proposes countering techno-scientific utopian ideas with alternative mythological approaches that regard Earth and space as divine entities, as many communities have done in the past, and challenging deeply ingrained monotheistic assumptions in our culture. She cautiously suggests pantheism, the belief that the universe itself is divine, as a way to shift perspectives. Principles of pantheism challenge the notion of ‘creation out of nothing’ and recognize that there is always something or someone present on the lands. It also challenges the idea that what is divine exists outside of this world, emphasizing that the universe itself is sacred and deserving of the utmost attention and care. By doing so, it challenges the hierarchy imposed by monotheistic beliefs, where a humanoid God prefers humans above all other species and entities, perpetuating hierarchies based on gender, species and more.
Rubenstein’s work combines critical historical analysis with philosophically sophisticated and compelling arguments, creating a comprehensive exploration of future imaginaries such as utopias and dystopias, hopes and fears, and their connection to our destructive tendencies and principles. This makes the book insightful and inspiring for organization scholars. It will particularly appeal to scholars interested in future imaginaries and the intersection of business and society (e.g. Gümüsay & Reinecke, 2022). Additionally it offers valuable insights for those engaged in systems thinking and exploring the relationship between natural and human systems, as well as the limitations of our current organizational models focused on growth, short-termism and speed (e.g. Grewatsch, Kennedy, & Bansal, 2021).
The book provides thought-provoking ideas for anyone interested in envisioning an alternative future beyond dominant narratives of inevitable dystopian apocalypse on Earth or utopian technological salvation. More broadly, engaging with the book’s concepts can benefit readers by broadening perspectives, encouraging readers to be cautious of the pernicious assumptions underpinning knowledge and practices that are commonly valued and embraced. Recognizing the role of these assumptions and in turn challenging them provides opportunities to avoid exacerbating existing ecological and social problems (e.g. Banerjee & Arjaliès, 2021; Bastien, Coraiola, & Foster, 2023). Rubenstein suggests avenues for engaging with counter-stories, rediscovering alternative histories, and developing indigenous solutions to challenge the hegemony of dominant ideologies and shape alternative futures.
