Against the background of the current debate on conventional versus alternative approaches to—and evaluation of—induced development programs, this article challenges the superiority of strength by means of practical illustrations from the field of cooperatives. Analysis of various cooperative projects involving the mentally disabled, poor farmers, and political refugees suggests that the “weak-low” elements of a given situation may include the protential for the participatory change sought, rather than a weakness and a hindrance to the attainment of the same.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Centro Studi
. 1992. Le cooperative sociali e i loro consorzi tra imprenditorialitá e solidarietá sociale. Roma: Istituto Italiano di Studi Cooperativi “Luigi Luzzati,” Ministero del Lavoro e della Previdenza Sociale.
2.
Colin, S.1974. Participation vs. expertise. International Journal of Comparative Sociology3-4:151-166.
3.
Craig, J. G.
, and H. Poerbo. 1988. Food security and rural development: The case of CIAMIS Indonesia. Journal of Rural Cooperation16(1-2): 111-124.
4.
D'Silva, E.
, and K. Bysouth. 1992. Poverty alleviation through agricultural projects. An EDI Policy Seminar Report No. 30. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
5.
Fellows, P.
, and C. Martin. 1985. Cooperatives for nutrition: Leaf protein cooperatives in Ghana and Mexico. In Yearbook of Agricultural Cooperation, 141-151. Oxford: Plunkett Foundation for Cooperative Studies.
6.
Garcia, R.
1984. Food systems and society: A conceptual and methodological challenge. Geneva: United Nations Research Institute for Social Research.
7.
Goulet, D.
1977. The uncertain promise: Value conflicts in technology transfer. New York: IDOC.
8.
Granovetter, M.1973. The strength of weak ties. American Journal of Sociology78:1360-1380.
9.
Granovetter, M.
1982. The strength of weak ties: A network theory revisited. In Social structure and network analysis, edited by Peter V. Marsden and Nan Lin, 105-130. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
10.
Guba, E. G.
, and Y. S. Lincoln. 1989. Fourth generation evaluation. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
11.
Henderson, H.
1978. Creating alternative futures: The end of economics. New York: Berkeley.
12.
Hirschman, A. O.
1984. Getting ahead collectively: Grassroots experiences in Latin America. New York: Pergamon.
13.
Honadle, G.1982. Rapid reconnaissance for development administration: Mapping and molding organizational landscapes. World Development10(8): 633-649.
14.
Kloppenburg, J.1991. Social theory and the de/reconstruction of agricultural science: Local knowledge for an alternative agriculture. Rural Sociology56(4): 519-548.
15.
Levi, Y.1990. Relating the cooperative and the community: A new classification approach. Scandinavian Journal of Development Alternatives9(2-3): 151-157.
16.
Levi, Y.
1993. Case studies in cooperative land settlement projects: Experiences and lessons. Paper presented at the International Conference on Regional Development: The Challenge of the Frontier (The Negev Center for Regional Development, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev and the Lewis Center for Regional Policy Studies, University of California at Los Angeles), December 27-30, Israel.
17.
Levi, Y.
, and H. Litwin. 1986. Community and cooperatives in participatory development. Aldershot: Gower.
18.
Levi, Y.
, and G. Naveh. 1988. Toward self-management in new land settlement projects. Boulder, CO: Westview.
19.
Lovins, A. B.
1979. Soft energy paths: Toward a durable peace. New York: Harper Colophon.
20.
Lundborg, G.1988. Alarola women's group farming on a voluntary basis. Experiences from Nigeria. Journal of Rural Cooperation16(12): 89-97.
21.
Martinez-Alier, J.
(with K. Schlupmann). 1987. Ecological economics: Energy environment and society. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
22.
Nations, J.
, and D. Komer. 1983. Rainforest and the hamburger society. Environment3:12.
23.
Nouveau Petit Larousse. 1968. Paris: Librairie Larousse.
24.
Pellegrin-Rescia, M. L.
1993. Des inactifs aux “travaillants”: à la recherche de catégories “heureuses.”Paris: Hommes et Perspectives.
25.
Putnam, R.
, R. Leonard, and R. Y. Nanetti. 1993. Making democracy work. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
26.
Reinharz, S.
, and G. D. Rowles, eds. 1988. Qualitative gerontology. New York: Springer.
27.
Rhoades, R. E.1986. Using anthropology in improving food production: Problems and prospects. Agricultural Administration22:57-78.
28.
Rondeau, O.1987. Paysannes du Sahel et stratégies alimentaires. Revue Internationale d'Action Communautaire17/57:63-80.
29.
Roy, S. B.
1986. The rural poor participating in their own development. In Cooperatives in Third World Development (Workshops on Basic Issues and Case Studies), edited by Charles G. Henriquez. Antigonish, Canada.
30.
Taylor, D.R.F.
1992. Development from within and survival in rural Africa: A synthesis of theory and practice. In Development from within: Survival in rural Africa, edited by D.R.F. Talor and Fiona Mackenzie, 214-258. London: Routledge.
31.
Villegas, A. C.1992. Salt of the earth. Shalom (Magazine for Alumni of Israel Training Courses, Jerusalem) 1:17-19.
32.
Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged. 1971. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica.
33.
Zaltman, G.
, and R. Duncan. 1977. Strategies for planned change. New York: Wiley.
