Higher emotional capital is associated with enhanced positive emotions, social relationships, social capital and human capital. The present study developed and evaluated a personal emotional capital questionnaire for adolescents (PECQ-A) that assessed 10 components of this capital. The PECQ-A was administrated to two samples of Iranian 15-year-olds from two Iranian cities (N1 = 600, N2 = 300, total N = 900) recruited using multistage random cluster sampling. A confirmatory factor analysis of the first sample confirmed the ten-factor structure of the PECQ-A. The reliability of PECQ-A was acceptable (Cronbach’s α = .90, McDonald’s ω = .88, AVE = .57, Composite reliability CR = .89). Analyses of the second sample revealed that the PECQ-A and its components exhibited convergent validity when compared to the Mental Health Continuum–Short Form (MHC–SF), the students’ GPAs, and the students’ mathematics and natural sciences scores. The PECQ-A demonstrated divergent validity when contrasted with the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS21). Test-retest reliability was acceptable. Invariance measurement was confirmed for the PECQ-A. A MANOVA identified several gender differences. PECQ-A scores were not sensitive to the order that the questionnaires were administered. The results suggest that the PECQ–A is a valid and reliable measure of personal emotional capital suitable for use with adolescents.
AndradeD. P. (2015). Emotional economic man: Power and emotion in the corporate world. Critical Sociology, 41(4–5), 785–805. https://doi.org/10.1177/0896920513497376
2.
AndrewY. (2015a). ‘I’m strong within myself’: Gender, class and emotional capital in childcare. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 36(5), 651–668. https://doi.org/10.1080/01425692.2013.835711
AsghariA.SaedF.DibajniaP. (2008). Psychometric properties of the depression anxiety stress scales-21 (DASS-21) in a non-clinical Iranian sample. Int J Psychol, 2(2), 82–102.
5.
BarclayD.HigginsC.ThompsonR. (1995). The partial least squares (PLS) approach to causal modeling: Personal computer adoption and use as an illustration. Technology studies, 2(2), 285–309.
6.
BourdieuP. (1987). Distinction: A social critique of the judgement of taste. Harvard University Press.
7.
BrownB.TannerJ.PadleyW. (2014). ‘This wound has spoilt everything’: Emotional capital and the experience of surgical site infections. Sociology of Health & Illness, 36(8), 1171–1187. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.12160
8.
CarlsonM.JacobssonB. (2016). Why don't you think of Malaysia?”-Narratives on educational migration, emotions, and social capital among transnational students. TRaNS: Trans-regional And-National Studies of Southeast Asia, 4(1), 4144–6361. https://doi.org/10.5944/reec.29.2017.17433
9.
ChinW. W.ToddP. A. (1998). Commentary: Issues and opinion on structural equation modeling. MIS Quarterly, 22(1), 237. vii-xvi. https://doi.org/10.2307/249674
DaviesS.RizkJ. (2018). The three generations of cultural capital research: A narrative review. Review of Educational Research, 88(3), 331–365. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654317748423
13.
DunnT. J.BaguleyT.BrunsdenV. (2014). From alpha to omega: A practical solution to the pervasive problem of internal consistency estimation. British Journal of Psychology, 105(3), 399–412. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12046
14.
FeeneyB. C.LemayE. P.Jr. (2012). Surviving relationship threats: The role of emotional capital. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(8), 1004–1017. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167212442971
15.
FornellC.LarckerD. (1987). A second generation of multivariate analysis: Classification of methods and implications for marketing research. Review of Marketing, 1, 407–450.
16.
GarsonG. D. (2016). Partial least squares: Regression and structural equation models. Statistical Associates Publishing.
17.
GendronB. (2018). The power of the emotional capital in education: Executive functions, heutagogy and meditation/mindfulness. Publibook/Société écrivains.
18.
GendronB.KouremenouE.-S.RusuC. (2016). Emotional capital development, positive psychology and mindful teaching: Which links?The International Journal of Emotional Education, 8(1), 63–74.
19.
GlosterA. T.RhoadesH. M.NovyD.KlotscheJ.SeniorA.KunikM.WilsonN.StanleyM. A. (2008). Psychometric properties of the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale-21 in older primary care patients. Journal of Affective Disorders, 110(3), 248–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2008.01.023
20.
GurR. E.GurR. C. (2016). Sex differences in brain and behavior in adolescence: Findings from the philadelphia neurodevelopmental cohort. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 70, 159–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.07.035.
21.
HairJ. F.BlackW. C.BabinB. J.AndersonR. E.TathamR. L. (1998). Multivariate data analysis. Prentice Hall , 5(3), 207–219.
22.
HairJ. F.RingleC. M.SarstedtM. (2011). PLS-SEM: Indeed a silver bullet. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 19(2), 139–152. https://doi.org/10.2753/mtp1069-6679190202
23.
HairJ. F.SarstedtM.RingleC. M.GuderganS. P. (2018). Advanced issues in partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM): Sage.
24.
HenselerJ.RingleC. M.SarstedtM. (2016). Testing measurement invariance of composites using partial least squares. International Marketing Review, 33(3), 405–431. https://doi.org/10.1108/imr-09-2014-0304
25.
HenselerJ.RingleC. M.SinkovicsR. R. (2009). The use of partial least squares path modeling in international marketing. New challenges to international marketing (pp. 277–319). Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
26.
HoffmannJ. P.ThorpeJ. D.DufurM. J. (2020). Family social capital and delinquent behavior in the United Kingdom. Social Sciences, 9(10), 178. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci9100178
JoshanlooM. (2016). A new look at the factor structure of the MHC‐SF in Iran and the United States using exploratory structural equation modeling. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 72(7), 701–713. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22287
30.
KeyesC. L.Magyar-MoeJ. L. (2003). The measurement and utility of adult subjective well-being. Positive Psychological Assessment: A Handbook of Models and Measures (pp. 411–425).
KhazaeiM.HolderM. D.SiroisF. M.OadesL. G.GallagherM. W. (2022). Evaluating the psychometric properties of the mental health continuum short form (MHC-SF) in Iranian adolescents. Current Psychology, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-02970-x.
33.
KhazaeiM.HolderM. D.SiroisF. M.OadesL. G.GendronB. (2021). Development and assessment of the personal emotional capital questionnaire for adults. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(4), 1856. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18041856
34.
LiuC. C.ChenJ. C. (2012). Developing and prioritizing measures of emotional capital in public service organizations. International Journal of Information Systems in the Service Sector (IJISSS), 4(3), 52–60. https://doi.org/10.4018/jisss.2012070104
35.
LovibondP. F.LovibondS. H. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the depression anxiety stress scales (DASS) with the beck depression and anxiety inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33(3), 335–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)00075-u
36.
LuthansF.Youssef-MorganC. M. (2017). Psychological capital: An evidence-based positive approach. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 4(1), 339–366. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032516-113324
37.
MagnerN.WelkerR. B.CampbellT. L. (1996). Testing a model of cognitive budgetary participation processes in a latent variable structural equations framework. Accounting and Business Research, 27(1), 41–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/00014788.1996.9729530
MossE.RousseauD.ParentS.St-LaurentD.SaintongeJ. (1998). Correlates of attachment at school age: Maternal reported stress, mother-child interaction, and behavior problems. Child Development, 69(5), 1390–1405. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06219.x
40.
MulderF. (2014). Creating high performance sports teams by building emotional capital. Executive MA thesis. https://flora.insead.edu
41.
NewmanM.PurseJ.SmithK.BroderickJ. (2015). Assessing emotional intelligence in leaders and organisations: Reliability and validity of the emotional capital report (ECR). The Australasian Journal of Organisational Psychology, 8, Article e6. https://doi.org/10.1017/orp.2015.5
42.
NewmanM.SmithK. H. (2014). Emotional intelligence and emotional labour: A comparison study using the emotional capital report (ecr). Education and Society, 32(1), 41–62. https://doi.org/10.7459/es/32.1.04
43.
O’ConnorB. P.CrawfordM. R.HolderM. D. (2015). An item response theory analysis of the Subjective Happiness Scale. Social Indicators Research, 124(1), 249–258. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-014-0773-9
44.
OeiT. P.SawangS.GohY. W.MukhtarF. (2013). Using the depression anxiety stress scale 21 (DASS-21) across cultures. International Journal of Psychology, 48(6), 1018–1029. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207594.2012.755535
45.
OmraniA.Wakefield-ScurrJ.SmithJ.BrownN. (2019). Survey development for adolescents aged 11–16 years: A developmental science based guide. Adolescent Research Review, 4(4), 329–340. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-018-0089-0
46.
ParcelT. L.HendrixJ. A.TaylorA. J. (2016). How far is too far?” Gender, emotional capital, and children’s public school assignments. Socius, Sociological Research for a Dynamic World, 2, Article 2378023116669955. https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023116669955
47.
PiriS.PishghadamR.RasekhZ. E. (2021). New models of L2 achievement based on EFL learners’ joint attention and their emotional, social, and cultural capitals. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 59(1), 31–54. https://doi.org/10.1515/iral-2017-0132
48.
PiriS.RasekhZ. E.PishghadamR. (2017). Emotional capital within the cultural dimensions framework. Cross-Cultural Communication, 13(6), 1–13.
49.
RafieyH.AlipourF.LeBeauR.Amini RaraniM.SalimiY.AhmadiS. (2017). Evaluating the psychometric properties of the mental health continuum-short form (MHC-SF) in Iranian earthquake survivors. International Journal of Mental Health, 46(3), 243–251. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207411.2017.1308295
ReidC. (2009). Schooling responses to youth crime: Building emotional capital. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 13(6), 617–631. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603110802094756
52.
SteynR. (2017). How many items are too many? An analysis of respondent disengagement when completing questionnaires. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, 6(2).
53.
TaberK. S. (2018). The use of Cronbach’s alpha when developing and reporting research instruments in science education. Research in Science Education, 48(6), 1273–1296. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-016-9602-2
54.
TenenhausM.AmatoS.Esposito VinziV. (2004). A global goodness-of-fit index for PLS structural equation modelling. Proceedings of the XLII SIS Scientific Meeting, 1, 739–742.
55.
Van DroogenbroeckF.SpruytB.KeppensG. (2018). Gender differences in mental health problems among adolescents and the role of social support: Results from the Belgian health interview surveys 2008 and 2013. BMC Psychiatry, 18(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-018-1591-4
56.
VaqueraE.ArandaE.Sousa-RodriguezI. (2017). Emotional challenges of undocumented young adults: Ontological security, emotional capital, and well-being. Social Problems, 64(2), 298–314. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spx010
57.
VegaA.CabelloR.Megías-RoblesA.Gómez-LealR.Fernández-BerrocalP. (2021). Emotional intelligence and aggressive behaviors in adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 23(4), 1173–1183. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838021991296
58.
VinterK.AusK.ArroG. (2020). Adolescent girls’ and boys’ academic burnout and its associations with cognitive emotion regulation strategies. Educational Psychology, 41(8), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2020.1855631
59.
WalshC. M.NeffL. A.GleasonM. E. (2017). The role of emotional capital during the early years of marriage: Why everyday moments matter. Journal of Family Psychology, 31(4), 513–519. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000277
60.
WangZ.CaiS.LiuM.liuD.MengL. (2020). The effects of self-reflection on individual intellectual capital. Journal of Intellectual Capital, 21(6), 1107–1124. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIC-03-2019-0043
61.
WuG.FederA.CohenH.KimJ. J.CalderonS.CharneyD. S.&MathéA. A. (2013). Understanding resilience. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 7, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00010.
62.
WuW. W. (2010). Linking Bayesian networks and PLS path modeling for causal analysis. Expert Systems with Applications, 37(1), 134–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2009.05.021
63.
ZembylasM. (2007). Emotional capital and education: Theoretical insights from Bourdieu. British Journal of Educational Studies, 55(4), 443–446. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8527.2007.00390.x
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
