Twenty Years of Virtual Coaching: A Systematic Review of Single-Case Studies on Supporting Families in Early Childhood

Abstract

Virtual coaching has become an increasingly used strategy for supporting families of young children with developmental delays and/or disabilities. Due to ongoing provider shortages and the focus on delivering early intervention (EI) and early childhood special education (ECSE) services during the pandemic, a greater emphasis has been placed on using technology to support children and families who receive EI/ECSE supports. This systematic literature review examined 13 single-case design studies focused on virtual coaching families of children ages 2–5. Using a researcher-developed coding scheme and the Single Case Analysis and Review Framework (SCARF), we examined (a) coach and participant demographic characteristics, (b) use of coaching strategies, (c) descriptions about the implementation of virtual coaching practices and technology, (d) use of generalization and maintenance measures, and (e) overall quality of the study. Strengths of the articles, as well as suggestions for increased transparency in reporting studies, are provided in this review.

Keywords

coaching early intervention early childhood special education family-centered practices

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

* Akemoglu

Hinton

Laroue

Jefferson

(2022). A parent-implemented shared reading intervention via telepractice. Journal of Early Intervention, 44(2), 190–210. https://doi.org/10.1177/10538151211032211

* Arhin

A. O.

(2005). Effect of bug-in-the-ear-feedback as an intervention to promote attachment behaviors in the adolescent mother/infant dyad [Doctoral dissertation, University of Florida]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/effect-bug-ear-feedback-as-intervention-promote/docview/304996195/se-2

Barton

E. E.

Pokorski

E. A.

Gossett

Sweeney

Qiu

Choi

(2018). The use of email to coach early childhood teachers. Journal of Early Intervention, 40(3), 212–228. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053815118760314

Barton

E. E.

Rigor

M. N.

Pokorski

E. A.

Velez

Domingo

(2019). Using text messaging to deliver performance feedback to preservice early childhood teachers. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 39(2), 88–102. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121418800016

Brown

J. A.

Woods

J. J.

(2016). Parent-implemented communication intervention: Sequential analysis of triadic relationships. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 36(2), 115–124. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121416628200

Cabrera

N. J.

Volling

B. L.

Barr

(2018). Fathers are parents, too! Widening the lens on parenting for children’s development. Child Development Perspectives, 12(0), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12275

Childress

D. C.

Parks

Schumaker-Murphy

Frick

Wilson

(2024). Early intervention special instructors: Demographics, titles, qualifications, and the need for consistency. Journal of Early Intervention, 47(4), 399–417. https://doi.org/10.1177/10538151241283162

Coogle

C. G.

Ottley

J. R.

Rahn

N. L.

Storie

(2018). Bug-in-ear ecoaching: Impacts on novice early childhood special education teachers. Journal of Early Intervention, 40(1), 87–103. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053815117748692

Coogle

C. G.

Wade

C. B.

Ottley

J. R.

McCorkle

(2021). The effect of different types of feedback statements on educators’ use of naturalistic instruction. Journal of Special Education Technology, 37(3), 373–383. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F01626434211019391

10.

Council for Exceptional Children . (2020). Shortages of special education teachers and early intervention providers. https://exceptionalchildren.org/sites/default/files/2021-07/PersonnelShortage_2021.pdf

11.

Crawford

Vaughn

K. A.

Guttentag

C. L.

Varghese

Zucker

T. A.

(2021). “Doing what I can, but I got no magic wand:” A snapshot of early childhood educator experiences and efforts to ensure quality during the COVID-19 pandemic. Early Childhood Education Journal, 49(5), 829–840. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-021-01215-z

12.

* Daczewitz

Meadan-Kaplansky

Borders

(2020). PiCs: Telepractice coaching for a parent of a child who is hard-of-hearing. Deafness and Educational International, 22(2), 113–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/14643154.2019.1587235

13.

Decker

K. B.

Williams

E. R.

Cook

G. A.

Fry

M. M.

(2021). The early intervention referral process for rural infants and toddlers with delays or disabilities: A family perspective. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 25(5), 715–723. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-020-03067-2

14.

Desimone

(2009). Improving impact studies of teachers’ professional development: Toward better conceptualizations and measures. Educational Researcher, 38(3), 181–199. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X08331140

15.

Dimian

A. F.

Symons

F. J.

Wolff

J. J.

(2021). Delay to early intensive behavioral intervention and educational outcomes for a medicaid-enrolled cohort of children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51(4), 1054–1066. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04586-1

16.

Division for Early Childhood . (2014). Recommended practices in early intervention/early childhood special education 2014. https://www.dec-sped.org/dec-recommended-practices

17.

Division for Early Childhood . (2022). Position statement on ethical practice [position statement]. https://divisionearlychildhood.egnyte.com/dl/KAh4cOFBZ8

18.

Division for Early Childhood . (2023). Division for early childhood of the council for exceptional children racial equity point of view. https://divisionearlychildhood.egnyte.com/dl/gJomwAv4ol

19.

* Dodge-Chin

Shigetomi-Toyama

Quinn

E. D.

(2022). Teaching parents read, ask, answer, prompt strategies via telepractice: Effects on parent strategy use and child communication. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 53(2), 237–255. https://doi.org/10.1044/2021_LSHSS-21-00075

20.

Douglas

S. N.

Meadan

Biggs

E. E.

Bagawan

Terol

A. K.

(2022). Building family capacity: Supporting multiple family members to implement aided language modeling. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 53(7), 2587–2599. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-022-05492-4

21.

* Douglas

S. N.

Biggs

E. E.

Meadan

Bagawan

(2021). The effects of telepractice to support family members in modeling a speech-generating device in the home. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 30(3), 1157–1169. https://doi.org/10.1044/2021_AJSLP-20-00230

22.

Dunst

C. J.

Trivette

C. M.

(2009). Capacity-building family-systems intervention practices. Journal of Family Social Work, 12(2), 119–143. https://doi.org/10.1080/10522150802713322

23.

Elford

Carter

R. A.

Jr. Aronin

(2013). Virtual reality check: Teachers use bug-in-ear coaching to practice feedback techniques with student avatars. Journal of Staff Development, 34(1), 40–43. https://web.p.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=0&sid=002a6705-ef52-42c7-ad2c-40970bc609e7%40redis

24.

Friedman

Woods

Salisbury

(2012). Caregiver coaching strategies for early intervention providers: Moving towards operational definitions. Infants & Young Children, 25(1), 62–82. https://doi.org/10.1097/IYC.0b013e31823d8f12

25.

Gionfriddo

M. R.

McClendon

Nolfi

D. A.

Kalarchian

M. A.

Covvey

J. R.

(2024). Back to the basics: Guidance for designing good literature searches. Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy, 20(4), 463–468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sapharm.2024.01.009

26.

Hardy

J. K.

McCorkle

L. S.

Pennington

R. C.

Williams

Duncan

A. Leigh

Kim

K. H. (2026). Coaching practitioners and families to provide academic instruction to young children: A systematic review of single case experimental studies. Early Childhood Education Journal, 54, 2843–2856. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-025-02047-x

27.

Harris

P. A.

Taylor

Thielke

Payne

Gonzalez

Conde

J. G.

(2009). Research electronic data capture (REDCap)—A metadata-driven methodology and workflow process for providing translational research informatics support. Journal of Biomedical Informatics, 42(2), 377–381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbi.2008.08.010

28.

Hoffmann

A. N.

Bogoev

B. K.

Sellers

T. P.

(2019). Using telehealth and expert coaching to support early childhood special education parent-implemented assessment and intervention procedures. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 38(2), 95–106. https://doi.org/10.1177/8756870519844162

29.

Israel

Carnahan

C. R.

Snyder

K. K.

Williamson

(2013). Supporting new teachers of students with significant disabilities through virtual coaching: A proposed model. Remedial and Special Education, 34(4), 195–204. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932512450517

30.

* Jabaley

J. J.

Lutzker

J. R.

Whitaker

D. J.

Self-Brown

(2011). Using iPhones™ to enhance and reduce face-to-face home safety sessions within SafeCare®: An evidence-based child maltreatment prevention program. Journal of Family Violence, 26(5), 377–385. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-011-9372-6

31.

Joyce

B. R.

Showers

(1981). Transfer of training: The contribution of “coaching”. Journal of Education, 163(2), 163–172. https://doi.org/10.1177/002205748116300208

32.

Kraft

M. A.

Blazar

Hogan

(2018). The effect of teacher coaching on instruction and achievement: A meta‐analysis of the causal evidence. Review of Educational Research, 88(4), 547–588. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654318759268

33.

* Kunze

M. G.

Machalicek

Wei

Joseph

(2021). Coaching via telehealth: Caregiver-mediated interventions for young children on the waitlist for an autism diagnosis using single-case design. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 10(8), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10081654

34.

Ledford

J. R.

Chazin

K. T.

Lane

J. D.

Zimmerman

K. N.

Bennett

P. B.

Ayres

K. A.

(2023, May). Single case analysis and review framework (SCARF). Retrieved from: https://ebip.vkcsites.org/scarfv2

35.

Lynam

Smith

M. M.

(2022). Sibling involvement in interventions for children with a disability: A systematic review. Disability & Rehabilitation, 44(17), 4579–4589. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2021.1913247

36.

* Marturana

(2012). Use of mobile device applications to teach caregivers to embed naturalistic teaching strategies in daily routines [Doctoral dissertation, The Florida State University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/use-mobile-device-applications-teach-caregivers/docview/1095529978/se-2

37.

* Mathes

N. E.

(2021). Modified parent-child interaction therapy to address subclinical levels of behavioral concerns: A nonconcurrent multiple probe across participants design [Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing. https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/modified-parent-child-interaction-therapy-address/docview/2572562383/se-2

38.

McLeod

R. H.

Akemoglu

Tomeny

(2021). Is coaching home visitors an evidence-based professional development approach? A review of the literature. Infants & Young Children, 34(2), 95–108. https://doi.org/10.1097/IYC.0000000000000186

39.

McLeod

R. H.

Hardy

J. K.

Carden

K. C.

(2024). A review of the literature: Distance coaching in early childhood settings. Journal of Early Intervention, 46(1), 3–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/10538151231159639

40.

Meadan

Daczewitz

M. E.

(2015). Internet-based intervention training for parents of young children with disabilities: A promising service-delivery model. Early Child Development and Care, 185(1), 155–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2014.908866

41.

Meadan

Douglas

S. N.

Kammes

Schraml-Block

(2018). I’m a different coach with every family: Early interventionists’ beliefs and practices. Infants & Young Children, 31(3), 200–214. https://doi.org/10.1097/IYC.0000000000000118

42.

* Morgan

Goldstein

(2004). Teaching mothers of low socioeconomic status to use decontextualized language during storybook reading. Journal of Early Intervention, 26(4), 235–252. https://doi.org/10.1177/105381510402600401

43.

* Naik-Polan

A. T.

Budd

K. S.

(2008). Stimulus generalization of parenting skills during parent-child interaction therapy. Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Intervention, 5(3), 71–92. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0100424

44.

National Telecommunications and Information Administration, & United States Economics and Statistics Administration . (2002). A nation online: How Americans are expanding their use of the internet. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Telecommunications and Information Administration. https://purl.access.gpo.gov/GPO/LPS17443

45.

Ottley

J. R.

Hanline

M. F.

(2014). Bug-in-ear coaching: Impacts on early childhood educators’ practices and associations with toddlers’ expressive communication. Journal of Early Intervention, 36(2), 90–110. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053815114563614

46.

Page

M. J.

McKenzie

J. E.

Bossuyt

P. M.

Boutron

Hoffmann

T. C.

Mulrow

C. D.

Moher

Tetzlaff

J. M.

Akl

E. A.

Brennan

S. E.

Chou

Glanville

Grimshaw

J. M.

Hróbjartsson

Lalu

M. M.

Loder

E. W.

Mayo-Wilson

McDonald

(2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 372, n71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71

47.

Peredo

T. N.

Dillehay

K. M.

Kaiser

A. P.

(2020). Latino caregivers’ interactions with their children with language delays: A comparison study. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 40(1), 52–63. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121419900269

48.

Randolph

K. M.

Duffy

M. L.

Brady

M. P.

Wilson

C. L.

Scheeler

M. C.

(2019). The impact of iCoaching on teacher-delivered opportunities to respond. Journal of Special Education Technology, 35(1), 15–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162643419836414

49.

Roberts

M. Y.

Stern

Y. S.

Grauzer

Nietfeld

Thompson

Jones

Kaat

A. J.

Kaiser

A. P.

(2023). Teaching caregivers to support social communication: Results from a randomized clinical trial of autistic toddlers. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 32(1), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1044/2022_AJSLP-22-00133

50.

Rock

M. L.

Gregg

Howard

P. W.

Ploessl

D. M.

Maughn

Gable

R. A.

Zigmond

N. P.

(2009). See me, hear me, coach me: Virtual bug-in-ear technology brings immediacy to professional development. Journal of Staff Development, 30(3), 24–31. https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/see-me-hear-coach/docview/211510194/se-2

51.

Rock

M. L.

Schumacker

R. E.

Gregg

Howard

P. W.

Gable

R. A.

Zigmond

(2014). How are they now? Longer term effects of eCoaching through online bug-in-ear technology. Teacher Education and Special Education, 37(2), 161–181. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406414525048

52.

Rosenberg

N. E.

Artman‐Meeker

Kelly

Yang

(2020). The effects of a bug‐in‐ear coaching package on implementation of incidental teaching by paraprofessionals in a K‐12 school. Journal of Behavioral Education, 29(2), 409–432. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-020-09379-1

53.

Rush

D. D.

Sheldon

M. L.

(2020). The early childhood coaching handbook (2nd ed.). Brookes Publishing Co.

54.

Sapiets

S. J.

Totsika

Hastings

R. P.

(2021). Factors influencing access to early intervention for families of children with developmental disabilities: A narrative review. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 34(3), 695–711. https://doi.org/10.1111/jar.12852

55.

Scheeler

M. C.

Morano

Lee

D. L.

(2016). Effects of immediate feedback using bug-in-ear with paraeducators working with students with autism. Teacher Education and Special Education, 41(1), 24–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406416666645

56.

Schertz

H. H.

Horn

(2017). Family capacity-building: Mediating parent learning through guided video reflection. In Trivette

Keilty

(Eds.), Family: Knowing families, tailoring practices, building capacity (DEC recommended practices monograph series no. 3) (pp. 125–134). Division for Early Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Children.

57.

* Shire

S. Y.

Worthman

L. B.

Arbuckle

(2021). A technology-enabled adaptation of face-to-face caregiver-mediated JASPER intervention: Preliminary examination of video conferenced caregiver coaching. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 126(5), 421–434. https://doi.org/10.1352/1944-7558-126.5.421

58.

Showers

(1985). Teachers coaching teachers. Educational Leadership, 42(7), 43–48.

59.

Sindelar

P. T.

Fisher

T. L.

Myers

J. A.

(2019). The landscape of special education licensure, 2016. Teacher Education and Special Education, 42(2), 101–116. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406418761533

60.

Slocum

T. A.

Pinkelman

S. E.

Joslyn

P. R.

Nichols

(2022). Threats to internal validity in multiple-baseline design variations. Perspectives on Behavior Science, 45(3), 619–638. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40614-022-00326-1

61.

Smith

S. W.

Kronfli

F. R.

Vollmer

T. R.

(2022). Commentary on Slocum et al.(2022): Additional considerations for evaluating experimental control. Perspectives on Behavior Science, 45(3), 667–679. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40614-022-00346-x

62.

Sone

B. J.

Lee

Roberts

M. Y.

(2021). Comparing instructional approaches in caregiver-implemented intervention: An interdisciplinary systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Early Intervention, 43(4), 339–360. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053815121989807

63.

Stayton

V. D.

Kilgo

Horn

Kemp

Bruder

M. B.

(2024). Standards for early intervention/early childhood special education: The development, uses, and vision for the future. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 44(3), 195–205. https://doi.org/10.1177/02711214231165192

64.

Tomeny

K. R.

Garcia-Grau

McWilliam

R. A.

(2021). Early interventionists’ ratings of family-centered practices in natural environments. Infants & Young Children, 34(24), 266–283. https://doi.org/10.1097/IYC.0000000000000203

65.

Traube

Gozalians

Duan

(2021). Transitions to virtual early childhood home visitation during COVID‐19. Infant Mental Health Journal, 43(1), 69–81. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21957

66.

United States Census Bureau . (2021). 2020 census illuminates racial and ethnic composition of the country. https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2021/08/improved-race-ethnicity-measures-reveal-united-states-population-much-more-multiracial.html

67.

United States Department of Education . (2024). Supporting a diverse educator workforce to strengthen teaching and learning: Non-regulatory guidance. https://www.education.nh.gov/sites/g/files/ehbemt326/files/inline-documents/sonh/non-reg-dec-2024-supporting-diverse-educator-workforce-strengthen-teaching-and-learning.pdf

68.

United States Department of Health and Human Services . (2021). Dear colleague letter on ECE workforce. https://acf.gov/sites/default/files/documents/ecd/Dear0ColleagueLetter_ECEWorkforceFinal5088002.pdf

69.

* Wainer

A. L.

Ingersoll

B. R.

(2015). Increasing access to an ASD imitation intervention via a telehealth parent training program. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(12), 3877–3890. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2186-7

70.

Wang

Begeny

J. C.

Durling

J. M.

Newson

N. K.

(2023). Adapting school‐based implementation support from in‐person to virtual: An experimental evaluation of a virtual coaching program to improve intervention fidelity. Psychology in the Schools, 60(10), 3961–3978. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22962

71.

Woods

J. J.

Brown

J. A.

(2011). Integrating family capacity-building and child outcomes to support social communication development in young children with autism spectrum disorder. Topics in Language Disorders, 31(3), 235–246. https://doi.org/10.1097/TLD.0b013e318227fde4

72.

Yang

Huang

Zhu

Hsieh

(2021). Coaching early childhood teachers: A systematic review of its effects on teacher instruction and child development. Review of Education, 10(1), 1–43. https://doi.org/10.1002/rev3.3343

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.02 MB

0.03 MB

0.00 MB