This study investigates the effects of a synchronous online intervention that explicitly taught equivalent fractions using virtual manipulatives to fifth-grade students with learning disabilities. Employing a multiple probe across participants single-case design, this study provided 15 fraction lessons via video conferencing programs to three fifth-grade students with learning disabilities. During these online interventions, participants received one-on-one explicit instruction, practiced key concepts using virtual manipulatives, and solved fraction problems using interactive boards. Researcher-developed probes measured the participants’ percentages of correct answers across baseline, intervention, and maintenance phases via an online assessment tool. In overall, students’ performance improved as the intervention was introduced; however, the extent and maintenance of improvement varied according to the students’ participation and perspectives regarding online instruction.
BaileyD. H.HoardM. K.NugentL.GearyD. C. (2012). Competence with fractions predicts gains in mathematics achievement. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 113(3), 447–455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2012.06.004
2.
BakiaM.ShearL.ToyamaY.LasseterA. (2012). Understanding the implication of online learning for educational productivity. U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Technology.
3.
BashamJ. D.StahlS.OrtizK.RiceM. F.SmithS. (2016). Equity matters: Digital and online learning for students with disabilities. Center on Online Learning and Students with Disabilities.
BoothJ. L.NewtonK. J.Twiss-GarrityL. K. (2014). The impact of fraction magnitude knowledge on algebra performance and learning. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 118, 110–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2013.09.001
6.
BouckE.LongH.BaeY. (2023). Exploring the virtual-representational-abstract instructional sequence across the learning stages for struggling students. Behavior Modification, 47(3), 590–614. https://doi.org/10.1177/01454455221129998
7.
BouckE. C.LongH. (2021). Online delivery of a manipulative-based intervention package for finding equivalent fractions. Journal of Behavioral Education. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-021-09449-y
8.
BouckE. C.LongH.JakubowL. (2022). Teaching division online to students via a virtual manipulative instructional sequence. Education & Training in Autism & Developmental Disabilities, 57(1), 16–30.
9.
BouckE. C.ParkJ. (2020). App-based manipulatives and the system of least prompts to support the acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of adding integers. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 55(2), 158–172.
10.
BouckE. C.ParkJ.ShurrJ. (2019). Using the virtual-representational instructional sequence to support the acquisition and maintenance of mathematics for students with intellectual disability. International Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 67(3), 217–228. https://doi.org/10.1080/20473869.2019.1640999
11.
CarrJ. E. (2005). Recommendations for reporting multiple-baseline designs across participants. Behavioral Interventions, 20(3), 219–224. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.191
12.
CinquinP.-A.GuittonP.SauzéonH. (2019). Online e-learning and cognitive disabilities: A systematic review. Computers & Education, 130, 152–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.12.004
13.
Dahlstrom-HakkiI.AlstadZ.BanerjeeM. (2020). Comparing synchronous and asynchronous online discussions for students with disabilities: The impact of social presence. Computers and Education, 150(2), 103842. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.103842
Education Endowment Foundation. (2022). The impact of COVID-19 on learning: A review of the evidence. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED620370
16.
EndersO. G.KostewiczD. (2023). Secondary teachers’ remote instructional practices in mathematics for students with disabilities. Journal of Special Education Technology, 38(1), 50–60. https://doi.org/10.1177/016264342110594
17.
EnnisR. P.LosinskiM. (2019). Interventions to improve fraction skills for students with disabilities: A meta-analysis. Exceptional Children, 85(3), 367–386. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402918817504
18.
FletcherJ. M.LyonG. R.FuchsL. S.BarnesM. A. (2018). Learning disabilities: From identification to intervention (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
19.
FranklinT.O.BurdetteP.EastT.MellardD.F. (2015). Optimal evidence-based instructional practices in online environments (Report No. 6). In Center on online instruction and students with disabilities. University of Kansas. http://hdl.handle.net/1808/22605
20.
FuchsL. S.SeethalerP. M.FuchsD.EspinasD. (2023). Severe pandemic learning loss and the promise of remotely delivered intervention in students with comorbid reading and mathematics learning difficulty. Journal of Learning Disabilities. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194231170313
21.
GreerD.RowlandA. L.SmithS. J. (2014). Critical considerations for teaching students with disabilities in online environments. Teaching Exceptional Children, 46(5), 79–91. https://doi.org/10.1177/0040059914528105
22.
GrobeckerB. (2000). Imagery and fractions in students classified as learning disabled. Learning Disability Quarterly, 23(2), 157–168. https://doi.org/10.2307/1511143
23.
HamdanN.GundersonE. A. (2017). The number line is a critical spatial-numerical representation: Evidence from a fraction intervention. Developmental Psychology, 53(3), 587–596. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000252
24.
HamiltonL. S.KaufmanJ. H.DilibertiM. K. (2020). Teaching and leading through a pandemic: Key findings from the American educator panels spring 2020 COVID-19 surveys. RAND Corporation. https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA168-2.html
25.
HansenN.JordanN. C.RodriguesJ. (2017). Identifying learning difficulties with fractions: A longitudinal study of student growth from third through sixth grade. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 50, 45–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.11.002
26.
HaynesS. N.RichardD. C. S.KubanyE. S. (1995). Content validity in psychological assessment: A functional approach to concepts and methods. Psychological Assessment, 7(3), 238–247. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.7.3.238
27.
JackowiczS.SahinI. (Eds.), (2021). Online education during the COVID-19 pandemic: Issues, benefits, challenges, and strategies. ISTES Organization. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED618952
28.
JonesN.VaughnS.FuchsL. (2020). Academic supports for students with disabilities. EdResearch for recovery project. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED607707
29.
JordanN. C.ResnickI.RodriguesJ.HansenN.DysonN. (2017). Delaware longitudinal study of fraction learning: Implications for helping children with mathematics difficulties. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 50(6), 621–630. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219416662033
30.
KeelerC. G.RichterJ.Anderson-InmanL.HorneyM. A.DitsonM. (2007). Exceptional learners: Differentiated instruction online. In CavanoughC.BlomeyerR. (Eds.), What works in online learning (pp. 125–178). International Society for Technology in Education.
31.
KestelE.ForgaszH. (2018). Targeted tuition delivered by personal video conferencing for students with mathematical learning difficulties. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 33(2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/ldrp.12164
32.
KratochwillT. R.HitchcockJ.HornerR. H.LevinJ. R.OdomS. L.RindskopfD. M.ShadishW. R. (2010). Single-case designs technical documentation. What works Clearinghouse. https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/Document/229
33.
LafayA.OsanaH. P.ValatM. (2019). Effects of interventions with manipulatives on immediate learning, maintenance, and transfer in children with mathematics learning disabilities: A systematic review. Education Research International, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/2142948
34.
LedfordJ. R.GastD. L. (Eds.), (2018). Single case research methodology: Applications in special education and behavior sciences. Routledge.
35.
MartinF.BolligerD. U. (2018). Engagement matters: Student perceptions on the importance of engagement strategies in the online learning environment. Online Learning, 22(1), 205–222. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v22i1.1092
MazzoccoM.M.M.DevlinK. T. (2008). Parts and “holes”: Gaps in rational number sense among children with vs. without mathematical learning disabilities. Developmental Science, 11(5), 681–691. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00717.x
38.
Moyer-PackenhamP. S.BolyardJ. J. (2016). Revisiting the definition of a virtual manipulative. In Moyer-PackenhamP. S. (Ed.), International perspectives on teaching and learning mathematics with virtual manipulatives (pp. 3–23). Springer.
39.
MurdersM. (2017). Phenomenological study of the online education experiences of college students with learning disabilities. In ProQuest dissertations and theses global. [Doctoral dissertation, University of Arkansas]. (Publication No. 10635327)
ParkJ.BouckE. C.FisherM. H. (2021). Using the virtual–representational–abstract with overlearning instructional sequence to students with disabilities in mathematics. The Journal of Special Education, 54(4), 228–238. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466920912527
42.
ParkJ.BryantD. P.ShinM. (2022). Effects of interventions using virtual manipulatives for students with learning disabilities: A synthesis of single-case research. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 55(4), 325–337. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194211006336
43.
ParkerR. I.VannestK. (2009). An improved effect size for single-case research: Nonoverlap of all pairs. Behavior Therapy, 40, 357–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2008.10.006
44.
ParkerR. I.VannestK. J.DavisJ. L. (2011). Effect size in single-case research: A review of nine nonoverlap techniques. Behavior Modification, 35(4), 303–322. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445511399147
PeltierC.MoranoS.ShinM.StevensonN.McKennaJ. W. (2021). A decade review of single-case graph construction in the field of learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 36(2), 121–135. https://doi.org/10.1111/ldrp.12245
47.
PetrettoD. R.MasalaI.MasalaC. (2020). Special educational needs, distance learning, inclusion and COVID-19. Education Sciences, 10(6), 154. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci10060154
48.
PurbudakA.YilmazM.CakirO. (2022). Emergency distance education during the COVID-19 pandemic: A qualitative research from a special education perspective. The Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 23(3), 86–102. http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1345154.pdf
49.
RadleyK. C.DartE. H.WrightS. J. (2018). The effect of data points per x - to y -axis ratio on visual analysts evaluation of single-case graphs. School Psychology Quarterly, 33(2), 314–322. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000243
50.
RodriguesJ.DysonN. I.HansenN.JordanN. C. (2016). Preparing for algebra by building fraction sense. Teaching Exceptional Children, 49(2), 134–141. https://doi.org/10.1177/0040059916674326
51.
SatsangiR.BouckE. C.Taber-DoughtyT.BofferdingL.RobertsC. A. (2016). Comparing the effectiveness of virtual and concrete manipulatives to teach algebra to secondary students with learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 39(4), 240–253. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731948716649754
52.
SchuckR. K.LambertR. (2020). Am I doing enough?” Special Educators’ experiences with emergency remote teaching in Spring 2020. Education Sciences, 10(11), 320. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci10110320
53.
ShinM.BryantD. P. (2015). Fraction interventions for students struggling to learn mathematics. Remedial & Special Education, 36(6), 374–387. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932515572910
54.
ShinM.BryantD. P. (2017). Improving the fraction word problem solving of students with mathematics learning disabilities: Interactive computer application. Remedial and Special Education, 38(2), 76–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932516669052
55.
ShinM.ParkJ.GrimesR.BryantD. P. (2021). Effects of using virtual manipulatives for students with disabilities: Three-level multilevel modeling for single-case data. Exceptional Children, 87(4), 418–437. https://doi.org/10.1177/00144029211007150
56.
SieglerR.CarpenterT.FennellF.GearyD.LewisJ.OkamotoY.ThompsonL.WrayJ. (2010). Developing effective fractions instruction for kindergarten through 8th grade: A practice guide (NCEE 2010-4039). National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance. http://ies.ed.gov/wwc/publications/practiceguides
57.
SieglerR. S.DuncanG. J.Davis-KeanP. E.DuckworthK.ClaessensA.EngelM.SusperreguyM. I.ChenM. (2012). Early predictors of high school mathematics achievement. Psychological Science, 23(7), 691–697. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612440101
The University of Texas at Austin. (2011). MSTAR interventions. Mathematics and science institute of the meadows center. https://meadowscenter.org/resources/
60.
TorbeynsJ.SchneiderM.XinZ.SieglerR. S. (2015). Bridging the gap: Fraction understanding is central to mathematics achievement in students from three different continents. Learning and Instruction, 37, 5–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.03.002
61.
TsueiM. (2014). Mathematics synchronous peer tutoring system for students with learning disabilities. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 17(1), 115–127. https://www.jstor.org/stable/jeductechsoci.17.1.115
62.
van GarderenD. (2006). Teaching visual representation for mathematics problem solving. In MontagueM.JitendraA. K. (Eds.), Teaching middle school students with mathematics difficulties (pp. 72–88). Guilford Press.
63.
WaltersT.SimkissN. J.SnowdenR. J.GrayN. S. (2022). Secondary school students’ perception of the online teaching experience during COVID-19: The impact on mental wellbeing and specific learning difficulties. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(3), 843–860. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12475
64.
What Works Clearinghouse. (2022). What Works Clearinghouse procedures and standards handbook. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance (NCEE). https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/Handbooks
65.
XieX.SiauK.NahF. F. H. (2020). COVID-19 pandemic – online education in the new normal and the next normal. Journal of Information Technology Case and Application Research, 22(3), 175–187. https://doi.org/10.1080/15228053.2020.1824884
66.
YükselN.ÇobanC.YaziciD. N. (2021). Examining the problems faced by students with special needs in the distance education process during the COVID-19 pandemic. Educational Process: International Journal, 10(4), 20–34. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1338447
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
