In the late 1980s, a new conceptual framework appeared in the science, technology, and innovation studies: the National Innovation System. The framework suggests that the research system's ultimate goal is innovation, and that the system is part of a larger system composed of sectors such as government, university, and industry and their environment. The framework also emphasized the relationships between the components or sectors, as the ``cause'' that explains the performance of innovation systems. Most authors agree that the framework came from researchers like Freeman, Nelson, and Lundvall. In this article, the author want to go further back in time and show what the ``system approach'' owes to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and its very early works from the 1960s. This article develops the idea that the system approach was fundamental to OECD work, and that, although not using the term National Innovation System as such, the organization considerably influenced the above-mentioned authors.
Ackoff, R.L.1968. Operational research and national science policy. In Decision making in national science policy, ed. A. De Reuck, M. Goldsmith , and J. Knight, 84-91. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Co.
2.
Advisory Council on Scientific Policy.1957 . Annual report 1956-57. London: HMSO.
3.
Amable, B., R. Barré, and R. Boyer.1997. Les systèmes d'innovation à l'ère de la globalisation. Paris: Economica .
4.
Arnow, K.1959. National accounts on R&D: The national science foundation experience. In Methodological aspects of statistics on research and development: Costs and manpower, ed. US National Science Foundation, NSF 59-36. Washington, DC: National Science Foundation.
5.
Bell, G., and M. Callon.1994. Techno-economic networks and science and technology policy. STI Review14:67-126.
6.
Bernal, J.D.1939. The social function of science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press [1973].
Callon, M., J. Law, and A. Rip. 1992. The management and evaluation of technological programs and the dynamics of techno-economic networks: The case of the AFME. Research Policy21(3):215-36.
9.
Constant, E.W.1973. A model for technological change applied to the turbojet revolution. Technology and Culture14 (4): 553-72.
10.
David, P., and D. Foray.1995. Assessing and expanding the science and technology knowledge base. STI Review16:13-68.
11.
DeBresson, C., and J. Townsend.1978. Notes on the inter-industry flow of technology in postwar Britain. Research Policy7:48-60.
12.
Dosi, G.1982. Technological paradigms and technological trajectories . Research Policy11(3):147-62.
13.
Dosi, G., C. Freeman, R. Nelson, G. Silverberg, and L. Soete.1988. Technical change and economic theory. Part V: National Innovation Systems. London: Pinter.
14.
Edgerton, D.2004. The linear model did not exist. In The science-industry nexus: History, policy, implications, ed. K. Grandin, N. Worms , and S. Widmalm, 31-57. Sagamore Beach: Science History Publications.
15.
Edquist, C., ed. 1997. Systems of innovation: Technologies, institutions and organizations. London: Pinter.
16.
Foray, D.2000. L'économie de la connaissance. Paris : La Découverte.
17.
---. 1982. Technological infrastructure and international competitiveness . Industrial and Corporate Change13 (3)[2004]: 541-69.
18.
---. 1987a. Information technology and change in techno-economic paradigm. In Technical change and full employment, ed. C. Freeman and L. Soete, 49-69. Oxford: Basil Blackwell .
19.
---. 1987b. Technology policy and economic performance. London: Pinter.
20.
---. 1987c. The challenge of new technologies. In Interdependence and co-operation in tomorrow's world, ed. Oecd, 123-56. Paris: OECD.
21.
Freeman, C., and C. Perez.1988. Structural crises of adjustment, business cycles and investment behaviour. In Technical change and economic theory, ed. G. Dosi, C. Freeman, R. Nelson, G. Silverberg, and L. Soete, 38-66. London: Frances Pinter .
22.
Freeman, C., J. Clark, and L. Soete.1982. New technology systems: An alternative approach to the clustering of innovations and the growth of industries. In Unemployment and technical innovation, ed. C. Freeman, J. Clark, and L. Soete, 64-81. Connecticut: Greenwood Press.
23.
Gibson, R.E.1964. A systems approach to research management. In R&D and technological innovation, ed. J. R. Bright, 34-49. Homewood, IL: R. D. Irwin.
24.
Godin, B.1998. Writing performative history: The new ``New Atlantis. '' Social Studies of Science28 (3): 465-83.
25.
---. 2002a. Technological gaps: An important episode in the construction of science and technology statistics. Technology in Society24 (4): 387-413.
26.
---. 2002b. The number makers: Fifty years of science and technology official statistics. Minerva40 (4): 375-97.
27.
---. 2004a. The new economy: What the concept owes to the OECD. Research Policy33 (5): 679-90.
28.
---. 2004b. The obsession for competitiveness and its impact on statistics: The construction of high-technology indicators. Research Policy33 (8): 1217-29.
29.
---. 2005. Measurement and statistics on science and technology: 1920 to the present. London: Routledge .
30.
---. 2006a. Statistics and STI policy: How to get relevant indicators. Communication presented at the OECD Blue Sky II Conference ``What Indicators for Science, Technology and Innovation Policies in the 21st Century?''Canada: Ottawa. September 25-27, 2006. http://www.oecd.org/document/60/0,2340,en_2649_34409_37083516_1_1_1_1,00.html#Wednesday (accessed on October 25, 2006).
31.
---. 2006b. The knowledge-based economy: Conceptual framework or buzzword? Journal of Technology Transfer31(1):17-30.
32.
---. 2006c. The linear model of innovation: The historical construction of an analytical framework. Science, Technology, and Human Values31(6):639-67.
33.
---. 2008a. The information economy: The history of a concept through its measurement, 1949-2005. History and Technology24 (3): 255-87.
34.
---. 2008b. The knowledge economy: Fritz Machlup's construction of a synthetic concept. In The capitalization of knowledge: A triple helix of university-industry-government, ed. R. Viale and H. Etzkovitz.London: Edward Elgar.
35.
---. 2008c. The rhetoric of science, technology and innovation policy: Conceptual frameworks, storytelling, and statistics. Montreal : INRS, Forthcoming.
36.
Halbert, M.H., and R.L. Ackoff.1959. An operations research study of the dissemination of scientific information. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Scientific Information, ed. National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council, Vol. 1, 97-130. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences.
37.
Hitch, C.1955. An appreciation of systems analysis. Journal of the Operations Research Society of America3 (4): 466-81.
38.
---. 1958. Economics and military operations research. Review of Economics and Statistics40 (3): 199-209.
39.
Hughes, T.P.1983. Networks of power: Electrification in Western society, 1880-1930. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
40.
Hughes, A.C., and T.P. Hughes.2000. Systems, experts, and computers: The system approach in management and engineering, World War II and after. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
41.
King, A.1975. A coherent national science policy-Is it possible? Seminar on the Research System, The Hague, Netherlands, June 3-4, 1975. DSTI/SPR/75.49.
42.
Klein, B., and W. Meckling.1958. Application of operations research to development decisions. Operations Research6 (3): 352-63.
43.
Kodama, F.1990. Can changes in the techno-economic paradigm be identified through empirical and quantitative study. STI Review7:101-29.
44.
Kodama, F.1991. Changing global perspectives: Japan, the USA and the new industrial order. Science and Public Policy19 (6): 385-92.
45.
Kuznets, S.S.1941. National income and its composition, 1919-1938. New York: National Bureau of Economic Research.
46.
Lakhtin, G.A.1968. Operational research methods in the management of scientific research. Minerva6 (4): 524-40.
47.
Lundvall, B.-A., ed. 1992. National systems of innovation: Towards a theory of innovation and interactive learning . London: Pinter.
48.
Lundvall, B.A., and B. Johnson.1994. The learning economy. Journal of Industry Studies, 1 (2): 23-42.
49.
Lundvall, B.-A., B. Johnson, E.S. Andersen, and B. Dalum.2003. National systems of production, innovation and competence building. Research Policy31 (2): 213-31.
50.
Meadows, D.L., J. Randers, and W.W. Behrens.1972. The limits to growth. New York: Universe Books.
51.
Miettinen, R.2002. National innovation system: Scientific concept or political rhetoric. Helsinki: Edita.
52.
Nelson, R.R.1981. Research on productivity growth and productivity differences: Dead ends and new departures. Journal of Economic Literature19 (3): 1029-64.
53.
Nelson, R. R., ed. 1993. National innovation systems: A comparative analysis. Oxford : Oxford University Press.
54.
Nelson, R.R., and S.G. Winter.1977. In search of a useful theory of innovation . Research Policy6 (1): 36-76.
55.
Oecd.1958. Standardized system of national accounts. Paris: OECD .
56.
---. 1959. Co-operation in scientific and technical research, C (59) 165. Paris: OECD.
57.
---. 1960. Co-operation in scientific and technical research. Paris: OECD.
58.
---. 1962. Proposed standard practice for surveys of research and development. Paris: OECD.
59.
---. 1963a. Science and the policies of government. Paris: OECD.
60.
---. 1963b. Science, economic growth, and government policy. Paris: OECD.
61.
---. 1967. The overall level and structure of R&D efforts in OECD member countries. Paris: OECD .
62.
---. 1968a. Fundamental research and the universities: Some comments on international differences. Paris: OECD.
63.
---. 1968b. Gaps in technology: General report. Paris: OECD.
64.
---. 1970. Gaps in technology: Comparisons between countries in education, R&D, technological innovation, international economic exchanges. Paris: OECD.
65.
---. 1971. R&D in OECD member countries: Trends and objectives . Paris: OECD.
66.
---. 1972a. Science, growth and society. Paris : OECD.
67.
---. 1972b. The research system. Vol. 1. Paris: OECD.
68.
---. 1974a. Allocation of resources to R&D: A systemic approach, SPT (74) 1. Paris: OECD. ---. 1974b. The research system. Vol. 3. Paris: OECD.
69.
---. 1975a. Changing priorities for government R&D: An experimental study of trends in the objectives of government R&D funding in 12 OECD member countries, 1961-1972. Paris: OECD.
70.
---. 1975b. Patterns of resources devoted to R&D in the OECD area, 1963-1971. Paris: OECD.
71.
---. 1979a. Trends in industrial R&D in selected OECD countries, 1967-1975. Paris: OECD.
72.
---. 1979b. Trends in R&D in the higher education sector in OECD member countries since 1965 and their impact on national basic research efforts. SPT (79) 20. Paris: OECD. ---. 1980. Technical change and economic policy. Paris: OECD.
73.
---. 1984. Industry and university: New forms of co-operation and communication. Paris: OECD.
74.
---. 1988. New technologies in the 1990s: A socio-economic strategy . Paris: OECD.
75.
---. 1992. National systems of innovation: Definitions, conceptual foundations and initial steps in a comparative analysis. DSTI/STP(92)15. Paris: OECD.
76.
---. 1993. Work on national innovation systems: Road map. DSTI/STP(93)8 . Paris: OECD.
77.
---. 1994. National innovation systems: Work plan for pilot case studies. DSTI/STP/ TIP(94)16. Paris: OECD.
78.
---. 1995a. Innovation policy and performance: A cross-country comparison . Paris: OECD.
79.
---. 1995b. The implications of the knowledge-based economy for future science and technology policies. OCDE/GD(95)136. Paris : OECD.
80.
---. 1996a. Conference on new S&T indicators for a knowledge-based economy: Background document. DSTI/STP/NESTI/GSS/TIP (96) 2. Paris: OECD.
81.
---. 1996b. National innovation systems: Proposals for phase II. DSTI/STP/TIP(96)11. Paris: OECD .
82.
---. 1997. National innovation systems. Paris : OECD.
83.
Oeec.1959. A Programme for european co-operation in science and technology. C/WP26/W/ 4, p. 2. Paris: OECD.
84.
Oecd (2000), Dynamisim National innovation Systems, Paris: OECD .
85.
Ouade, E.S.1969. The systems approach and public policy. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.
86.
Pavitt, K.1984. Sectoral patterns of technical change: Towards a taxonomy and a theory. Research Policy13 (6): 343-73.
87.
Robson, M., J. Townsend, and K. Pavitt.1988. Sectoral patterns of production and use of innovations in the UK, 1945-1983. Research Policy17 (1): 1-14.
88.
Rosenberg, N.1979. Technological interdependence in theAmerican economy. Technology and Culture20 (1): 25-50.
---. 1985. Technological guideposts and innovation avenues. Research Policy14 (2): 61-82.
91.
Salomon, J.-J.1970. Science et politique. Paris: Seuil.
92.
---. 2000. L'OCDE et les politiques scientifiques. Revue pour l'histoire du CNRS 3:40-58. Scherer, F. M. 1982. Inter-industry technology flows in the United States. Research Policy 11 (4): 227-45.
93.
Sharif, N.2006. Emergence and development of the national innovation system concept. Research Policy35 (5): 745-66.
94.
Shinn, T.2002. The triple helix and new production of knowledge: Prepackaged thinking in science and technology. Social Studies of Science32 (4): 599-614.
95.
Smith, K.1995. Interactions in knowledge systems: Foundations, policy implications and empirical methods. STI Review16.
96.
Soete, L., and A. Arundel , eds. 1993. An integrated approach to European innovation and technology diffusion policy. EIMS Series, Publication no. 15090. European Commission .
97.
Stirner, H.E.1959. A national accounting system for measuring the intersectoral flows of R&D funds in the United States. In Methodological aspects of statistics on R&D: Costs and manpower, ed. US National Science Foundation. Washington, DC: National Science Foundation.
98.
United Nations.1953. A system of national accounts and supporting tables. New York: Department of Economic Affairs, Statistical Office.
99.
U.S. Department of Defense.1953. The growth of scientific R&D. Washington: Office of the Secretary of Defense (R&D). RDB 114/34.
100.
U.S. National Science Foundation.1956. Expenditures for R&D in the United States: 1953, Reviews of data on R&D, 1. Washington, DC: National Science Foundation.
101.
---. 1959. Funds for R&D in the United States, 1953-59, Reviews of Data on R&D, 16. Washington, DC: National Science Foundation.
102.
---. 1967. National patterns of R&D resources. Washington, DC: National Science Foundation.
103.
U.S. President's Scientific Research Board.1947. Science and public policy. President's Scientific Research Board. Washington, DC: USGPO.
