Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and the electroencephalography (EEG)-based technology of Brain Fingerprinting have been hailed as the next, best technologies for lie detection in America, particularly in the context of post-9/11 anxiety. In scientific journals and the popular press, each has been juxtaposed and deemed superior to traditional polygraphy, which measures changes in the autonomic nervous system and correlates these fluctuations with emotions such as anxiety, fear, and guilt. The author contends that the juxtaposition of polygraphy and brain-based detection is a rhetorical strategy that foregrounds the corrective advantage of brain-based techniques, creates an artificial rupture between contiguous technologies, and ignores the shared assumptions foundational to fMRI, EEG, and two older ``truth telling'' technologies: polygraphy and fingerprinting. Far from describing the brain and its functions, fMRI and Brain Fingerprinting produce models of the brain that reinforce social notions of deception, truth, and deviance.
Alder, Ken.2007. ``A social history of untruth: Lie detection and trust in twentieth-century America.'' Representations80:1-33.
2.
---. 2006. The lie detectors: The history of an American obsession . New York: Free Press.
3.
Beaulieu, Anne.2000. The space inside the skull: Digital representations, brain mapping and cognitive neuroscience in the decade of the brain. Communications. PhD Diss., Montreal, McGill University .
4.
---. 2002. ``Images are not the (only) truth: Brain mapping, visual knowledge, and iconoclasm.'' Science, Technology & Human Values27(1):53-86.
5.
---. 2003. ``Brains, maps and the new territory of psychology. '' Theory psychology13(4):561-8.
6.
---. 2004. ``From brainbank to database: The informational turn in the study of the brain.'' Studies in history and philosophy of biological and biomedical science35:367-90.
7.
Beck, Ulrich.1992. Risk society: Towards a new modernity. London: SAGE Publications.
8.
``Blondes lose out in film love test.''1928. The New York Times, January 31.
9.
Bok, S.1999. Lying: Moral choice in public and private life . New York: Vintage Books.
10.
Bowden, Mark.2003``The dark art of interrogation.''The Atlantic Monthly, October: 51-76.
11.
---. 2001b ``Brain Fingerprinting testing ruled admissible in court '' Accessed May 16, 2007, from http://www.brainwavescience.com/Ruled%20Admissable.php .
12.
---. 2001c. ``Counterterrorism applications.'' Accessed May 16, 2007, from http://www.brainwavescience.com/counterterrorism.php .
13.
---. 2001d. ``Highlights of CBS 60 Minutes featuring brain fingerprinting .'' Accessed May 16, 2007, from http://www.brainwavescience.com/CBS%2060%20Min%20High.php .
14.
---. 2001e. ``Interview with Dr. Lawrence Farwell: Frequently asked questions about Brain Fingerprinting testing.'' Accessed May 16, 2007, from http://www.brainwavescience.com/FreqAskedQuestions.php.
15.
---. 2001f. ``Questionnaire'' Accessed May 16, 2007 , from http://www.brainwavescience.com/Questionnaire.htm .
16.
Brett, Matthew.2005. ``The MNI brain and the Talairach atlas.'' Medical Research Council homepage: Cognition and brain sciences unit imaging homepage. Accessed January 27, 2007, from http://www.mrc-cbu.cam.ac.uk/Imaging/Common/mnispace.shtml .
17.
Bunn, Geoffrey.1998. The hazards of a will to truth: A history of the lie detector. History. PhD Diss., York, York University .
18.
Cacioppo, John, Louis Tassinary , and Gary Berntson, eds. 2000. Handbook of psychophysiology. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
19.
Campbell, Nancy.2005. ``Suspect technologies: Scrutinizing the intersection of science, technology, and policy.'' Science, Technology & Human Values30:374-402.
20.
Cavuoto, James.2003. ``Brainwave sensor touted as tool in counter-terrorism''Neurotech Business Report. Accessed January 27, 2007, from www.neurotechreports.com/pages/brainfingerprinting.html .
21.
Cole, Simon.2001. Suspect identities: A history of fingerprinting and criminal identification. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
22.
Conan, Neal.2006. ``The future of lie detecting.''Talk of the Nation (National Public Radio), June 26.
23.
Damasio, Antonio.1995. Descartes' error: emotion, reason, and the human brain . New York: Harper Perennial .
24.
Davatzikos, C., Ruparel, K., Fan, Y., Shen, DG, Acharyya, M., Loughead, J.W., Gur, R.C., and Langleben, D.D.2005. ``Classifying spatial patterns of brain activity with machine learning methods: application to lie detection. '' Neuroimage28(3):663-8.
25.
D'Esposito, Mark, Leon Y. Deouell, and Adam Gazzaley.2003. ``Alterations in the BOLD FMRI signal with ageing and disease: A challenge for neuroimaging''Nature Reviews Neuroscience4:863-72.
26.
Dumit, Joseph.2004. Picturing personhood: Brain scans and biomedical identity . Princeton: Princeton University Press.
27.
Farwell, Lawrence.2000. ``Brain fingerprinting: Brief summary of the technology .'' Brain Fingerprinting Laboratories, Inc. Accessed May 16, 2007, from http://www.forensic-evidence.com/site/Behv_Evid/Farwell_sum6_00.html .
28.
---. 2001a. ``Brain Fingerprinting laboratories: Scientific procedure, research, and applications.'' Brain Fingerprinting Laboratories, Inc. Accessed May 16, 2007, from http://www.brainwavescience.com/TechnologyOverview.php.
29.
---. 2001b. ``Brain Fingerprinting testing and memory issues.'' Brain Fingerprinting Laboratories, Inc. Accessed May 16, 2007, from http://www.brainwavescience.com/MemoryIssues.php .
30.
---. 2001c. ``Brain Fingerprinting testing ruled admissible in court .'' Brain Fingerprinting Laboratories, Inc. Accessed May 16, 2007, from http://www.brainwavescience.com/Ruled%20Admissable.php.
31.
---. 2003. ``The scope and science of Brain Fingerprinting testing: Scientific data and is relationship to findings of fact and law.'' Brain Fingerprinting Laboratories, Inc. Accessed May 16, 2007, from http://www.brainwavescience.com/ScopeandScienceofBF.php .
32.
Farwell, L.A., and E. Donchin.1988. ``Event-related potentials in interrogative polygraphy: Analysis using bootstrapping.'' Psychophysiology25(4):445.
33.
---. 1991. ``The truth will out: Interrogative polygraphy (``lie detection'') with event-related potentials.'' Psychophysiology28(5):531-47.
34.
Feder, Barnaby.2001. ``Truth and justice, by the blip of a brainwave .'' New York Times, October 9. Accessed January 27, 2007, from http://www.brainfingerprinting.com/NewYorkTimes.php .
35.
Ford, Elizabeth.2006. ``Lie detection: Historical, neuropsychiatric and legal dimensions.'' International Journal of Law and Psychiatry29(3):159-77.
36.
Franklin, Sarah; Celia Lury; and Jackie Stacey. (2000) Global nature, Global culture. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.
37.
Frith, Susan.2004. ``Who's minding the brain.'' UPenn Gazette Jan/Feb. Accessed January 27, 2007, from http://www.upenn.edu/gazette/0104/frith1.html.
38.
Gammage, Jeff.2002. ``9/11 one year later: Gearing up.'' The Philadelphia Inquirer, September 7. Accessed January 27, 2007, from http://www.philly.com/mld/inquirer/news/special_packages/sept11/4017725.htm .
39.
Ganis, G., S.M. Kosslyn, S. Stose, W.L. Thompson, and D.A. Yurgelun-Todd .2003. ``Neural correlates of different types of deception: An fMRI investigation.'' Cerebral Cortex13:830-6.
40.
Government Accountability Office.2001. ``Investigative techniques: Federal agency views on the potential application of `Brain Fingerprinting.''' October. Accessed January 27, 2007, from http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d0222.pdf .
41.
Hall, Carl.2001. ``Fib detector: Study shows brain scan detects patterns of neural activity when someone lies.'' San FranciscoChronicle, November 26: A-10.
42.
Halperin, James.1996. The truth machine. New York : Ballantine Books.
43.
Hanson, Allen.1993. Testing testing: Social consequences of the examined life . Berkeley: University of California Press.
44.
Hird, Mira.2003. ``From the matter of culture to the culture of matter: Feminist explorations of nature and science.'' Sociological Research Online8 (1). Accessed January 27, 2007, from http://www.socresonline.org.uk/8/1/hird.html.
45.
Illes, J.2003. ``Neuroethics in a new era of neuroimaging. '' American Journal of Neuroradiology24(9):1734-41.
46.
Inbau, Fred.1957. ``Lie-detector test limitations'' Journal of Forensic Sciences2(3): 255-62.
47.
Keller, Evalyn Fox.1992. Secrets of life, secrets of death: Essays on language, gender and science. New York and London: Routledge.
48.
Kennedy, Donald2005. ``Neuroimagine: Revolutionary research tool or a post-modern phrenology.'' The American Journal of Bioethics5(2):19.
49.
Kirsch, Steve.2001. ``Identifying terrorists before they strike by using computerized knowledge assessment (CKA)'' Steve Kirsch's Political Home Page. Accessed January 27, 2007, from http://www.skirsch.com/politics/plane/ultimate.htm.
50.
Kozel, F.A., L.J. Revell, J.P. Lorberbaum, A. Shastri, J.D. Elhai, M.D. Horner, A. Smith, Z. Nahas, D.E. Bohning, and M.S. George.2004. ``A pilot study of functional magnetic resonance imaging brain correlates of deception in healthy young men.'' Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience16(3):295-305.
51.
Kulynych, J.2002. ``Legal and ethical issues in neuroimaging research: Human subjects protection, medical privacy, and the public communication of research results.'' Brain and Cognition50(3):345-57.
52.
Langleben, D.D., L. Schroeder, J.A. Maldjian, R.C. Gur, S. McDonald, J.D. Ragland, C.P. O'Brien, and A.R. Childress.2002. ``Brain activity during simulated deception: An event-related functional magnetic resonance study.'' NeuroImage15:727-32.
53.
Langleben, D.D., J.W. Loughead, W.B. Bilker, K. Ruparel, A.R. Childress, S.I. Busch, and R.C. Gur.2005. ``Telling truth from lie in individual subjects with fast event-related fMRI.'' Human Brain Mapping26(4):262-72.
54.
Lee, Tatia, Ho-Ling Liu, Li-Hai Tan, Chetwyn C. H. Chan, Srikanth Mahankali, Ching-Mei Feng, Jinwen Hou, Peter T. Fox, and Jia-Hong Gao .2002. ``Lie detection by functional magnetic resonance imaging.'' Human Brain Mapping15(3):157-64.
55.
Lykken, David.1998. A tremor in the blood: Uses and abuses of the lie detector . New York: Plenum Press .
56.
Madsen, Lars, Shaun Parsons, and Don Grubin.2004. ``A preliminary study of the contribution of periodic polygraph testing to the treatment and supervision of sex offenders .'' Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology15(4):682-95.
57.
Marston, William.1917. Systolic blood pressure symptoms of deception. Journal of Experimental Psychology2(2):117-163.
58.
Marston, William.1923. ``Sex characteristics of systolic blood pressure behavior .'' Journal of Experimental Psychology6:387-419.
59.
McCall, Becky.2004. ``Brain fingerprints under scrutiny.'' BBC News, UK Edition, February 17. Accessed January 27, 2007 , from http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3495433.stm .
60.
Mohamed, F.B., S.H. Faro, N.J. Gordon, S.M. Platek, H. Ahmad, J.M. Williams.2006. ``Brain mapping of deception and truth telling about an ecologically valid situation: functional MR imaging and polygraph investigation-initial experience.'' Radiology238(2):679-88.
61.
O'Brien, Ellen.2001. ``The brain operates differently in deception and honesty .'' University of Pennsylvania press release. November 11. Available: http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2001-11/uopm-tb0110901.php .
Paul, Ron.2003. ``Trading freedom for security: Drifting toward a police state.'' Mediterranean Quarterly, 14(1): 6-24.
64.
Prasad, Amit.2005. ``Making images/making bodies: visibilizing and disciplining through magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).'' Science, Technology & Human Values30:291-316.
65.
Rhodea, Molly.2000. ``Wonder Woman and her disciplinary powers.'' Doing science + culture. New York: Routledge .
66.
Schacter, Daniel.1999. ``The seven sins of memory: Insights from psychology and cognitive neuroscience.'' American Psychologist54(3):182-203.
67.
Sengoopta, Chandak.2003. Imprint of the Raj: How fingerprinting was born in colonial India. London: Macmillan .
68.
Sententia, Wrye.2001. ``Brain fingerprinting: Databodies to databrains . '' The Journal of Cognitive Liberties2(3):31-46.
69.
Sheridan, Susan.2002. ``Words and things: Some feminist debates on culture and materialism.'' Australian Feminist Studies17(37):23-30.
70.
Shulman, Polly.2002. ``Liar, liar, pants on fire.'' Popular Science Monthly, July 24.
71.
Smith, Roger.1992. Inhibition: history and meaning in the sciences of the mind and brain. New York: New York University Press.
72.
Society for Neuroscience.2002. `` Understanding human behavior: Deception.'' Brain Waves. Accessed January 27, 2007, from http://apu.sfn.org/content/Publications/BrainWaves/PastIssues/2002spring/.
73.
Solovitch, Sara.2004. ``Mind reader'' legal affairs: The magazine at the intersection of law and life.'' Accessed January 27, 2007 , from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_kmlea/is_200411/ai_n8608624''> ;FindArticles - Mind Reader.
74.
Spence, S.A., T.F. Farrow, A.E. Herford, I.D.Wilkinson, Y. Zheng, and P.W. Woodruff.2001. ``Behavioural and functional anatomical correlates of deception in humans.'' Neuroreport12(13):2849-53.
75.
Spence, S.A., M.D. Hunter, T.F. Farrow, R.D. Green, D.H. Leung, C.J. Hughes, and V. Ganesan.2004. ``A cognitive neurobiological account of deception: evidence from functional neuroimaging.'' Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences359(1451):1755-62.
76.
Spun, Brandon.2002. ``IP: Medical detection of false witness'' Insight on the News, February 4. Accessed January 27, 2007 , from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_4_18/ai_82651663.
77.
St. Augustine (1948). De mendacio. Trans. H. Browne. 2003. Christian Classics Ethereal Library (CCEL). Calvin College. Accessed May 16, 2007, from http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf103.v.v.html .
78.
Stam, Henderikus.1998. ``The body's psychology and psychology's body: Disciplinary and extra-disciplinary examinations.'' In The body and psychology . London: SAGE Publications.
79.
Star, Susan Leigh.1989. Regions of the mind. Stanford : Stanford University Press.
80.
Streitfeld, David, and Charles Piller.2002. ``Big Brother finds ally in once-wary high tech.'' Los Angeles Times, Accessed January 27, 2007, from http://articles.latimes.com/2002/jan/19/news/mn-23644.
81.
Thomas, Ronald.1999. Detective fiction and the rise of forensic science . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
82.
Thompson, Clive.2001. ``The lie detector that scans your brain.'' New York Times Magazine, December 9.
83.
Tran, Trinh.2002. ``Truth and deception-The brain tells all.'' The Penn Current, April 11. Accessed January 27, 2007, from http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/current/2002/041102/research.html .
84.
Waldby, Catherine.2000. The Visible Human Project: Informatic bodies and posthuman medicine. London: Routledge .
85.
Wilcox, Daniel, and Daniel E. Sosnowski .2005. ``Polygraph examination of British sexual offenders: A pilot study on sexual history disclosure testing .'' Journal of Sexual Aggression11(1):3-25.
86.
Wilson, Elizabeth.1998. Neural geographies: Feminism and the microstructure of cognition. New York and London : Routledge.
87.
Witchalls, Clint.2004. ``Murder in mind.'' The Guardian , March 25. Accessed January 27, 2007, from http://www.guardian.co.uk/crime/article/0,2763,1176912,00.html .
88.
Wolfe, Amy, David Bjornstad, Milton Russell, and Nichole Kerchner .2002. ``A framework for analyzing dialogues over the acceptability of controversial technologies.'' Science, Technology and Human Values27(1):134-59.
89.
Wolpe, P.R., K.R. Foster, and D.D. Langleben.2005. ``Emerging neurotechnologies for lie-detection: promises and perils.'' American Journal of Bioethics5(2):39-49.
