Five studies (total valid N = 1,781, primarily young adults from China, with one study involving residents of the United States) were conducted to investigate the link between relationship modes (exchange vs. communal) and meaning in life. Study 1 revealed significant associations among relationship modes, dehumanization, and meaning in life. Studies 2, 3a, and 3b showed that the priming of an exchange (vs. communal) mode led to lower meaning in life, with this effect mediated by the experience of dehumanization. Moreover, Study 3a also found that individuals with higher (vs. lower) relational-interdependent self-construal were more prone to feel dehumanized in exchange relationships. In Study 4, a causal relation between the experience of dehumanization and meaning in life was confirmed through a manipulation of dehumanization. The studies illustrate how relationship modes may influence our existence as human beings and shed light on the improvement of human experience and meaning in life.
AndersenP. A.GuerreroL. K. (1996). The bright side of relational communication: Interpersonal warmth as a social emotion. In AndersenP. A.GuerreroL. K. (Eds.), Handbook of communication and emotion (pp. 303–329). Academic Press.
2.
AronA.AronE. N.SmollanD. (1992). Inclusion of other in the self scale and the structure of interpersonal closeness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63(4), 596–612. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.63.4.596
3.
AuhagenA. E. (2000). On the psychology of meaning of life. Swiss Journal of Psychology / Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Psychologie / Revue Suisse de Psychologie, 59(1), 34–48. https://doi.org/10.1024/1421-0185.59.1.34
4.
BaiH.ZhaoX. (2024). Asian = machine, Black = animal? The racial asymmetry of dehumanization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 127(5), 1038–1061. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000455
5.
BaldissarriC.AndrighettoL. (2021). Being treated as an instrument: Consequences of instrumental treatment and self-objectification on task engagement and performance. Human Performance, 34(2), 85–106. https://doi.org/10.1080/08959285.2021.1878182
6.
BastianB.HaslamN. (2011). Experiencing dehumanization: Cognitive and emotional effects of everyday dehumanization. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 33(4), 295–303. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973533.2011.614132
7.
BaumeisterR. F.LearyM. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivations. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497
8.
BaumeisterR. F.VohsK. D.AakerJ. L.GarbinskyE. N. (2013). Some key differences between a happy life and a meaningful life. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 8(6), 505–516. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2013.830764
9.
BergJ. H.ClarkM. S. (1986). Differences in social exchange between intimate and other relationships: Gradually evolving or quickly apparent? In DerlegaV. J.WinsteadB. A. (Eds.) Friendship and social interaction (pp. 101–128). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-4880-4_6
10.
BerscheidE.SnyderM.OmotoA. M. (1989). The relationship closeness inventory: Assessing the closeness of interpersonal relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(5), 792–807. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.5.792
11.
BraunT.RohrM. K.WagnerJ.KunzmannU. (2018). Perceived reciprocity and relationship satisfaction: Age and relationship category matter. Psychology and Aging, 33(5), 713–727. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pag0000267
12.
BresnahanM. J.ChiuH. C.LevineT. R. (2004). Self-construal as a predictor of communal and exchange orientation in Taiwan and the USA. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 7(2), 187–203. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-839x.2004.00144.x
13.
BruneauE.HameiriB.Moore-BergS. L.KteilyN. (2021). Intergroup contact reduces dehumanization and meta-dehumanization: Cross-sectional, longitudinal, and quasi-experimental evidence from 16 samples in five countries. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 47(6), 906–920. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220949004
14.
BuunkA.De DreuC. K. W. (2006). The moderating role of communal orientation on equity considerations in close relationships. Revue Internationale de Psychologies Sciale, 19(1), 121–144.
BuunkB. P.Van YperenN. W. (1991). Referential comparisons, relational comparisons, and exchange orientation: Their relation to marital satisfaction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17(6), 709–717. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167291176015
17.
CaesensG.StinglhamberF.DemoulinS.De WildeM. (2017). Perceived organizational support and employees’ well-being: The mediating role of organizational dehumanization. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 26(4), 527–540. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2017.1319817
18.
ClarkM. S.DubashP.MillsJ. (1998). Interest in another’s consideration of one’s needs in communal and exchange relationships. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 34(3), 246–264. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.1998.1352
19.
ClarkM. S.LemayE. P.Jr (2023). When emotion expression will (and will not) enhance listening and responsiveness. Current Opinion in Psychology, 101695. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101695
20.
ClarkM. S.LemayE. P.JrGrahamS. M.PatakiS. P.FinkelE. J. (2010). Ways of giving benefits in marriage: Norm use, relationship satisfaction, and attachment-related variability. Psychological Science, 21(7), 944–951. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610373882
21.
ClarkM. S.MillsJ. (1979). Interpersonal attraction in exchange and communal relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(1), 12–24. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.37.1.12
22.
ClarkM. S.MillsJ. R. (2012). A theory of communal (and exchange) relationships. In Van LangeP. A. M.KruglanskiA. W.Tory HigginsE. (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 232–250). Sage Publications Ltd.
23.
ClarkM. S.TarabanC. (1991). Reactions to and willingness to express emotion in communal and exchange relationships. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 27(4), 324–336. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(91)90029-6
24.
CostinV.VignolesV. L. (2020). Meaning is about mattering: Evaluating coherence, purpose, and existential mattering as precursors of meaning in life judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 118(4), 864–884. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000225
25.
CrossS. E.BaconP. L.MorrisM. L. (2000). The relational-interdependent self-construal and relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(4), 791–808. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.78.4791
26.
DeVellisR. F. (2017). Scale development: Theory and applications (4th ed.). Sage.
27.
DobsonK. S. (2020). Inauthenticity & self-dehumanization: Disconnection from the self causes a loss of humanity. (Publication No. 27998493) [Doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University]. ProQuest Dissertations and These Global.
28.
EbersoleP. (1998). Types and depth of written life meanings. In WongP. T. P.FryP. S. (Eds.), The human quest for meaning: A handbook of psychological research and clinical applications (pp. 179–191). Erlbaum.
29.
EnockF. E.FlavellJ. C.TipperS. P.OverH. (2021). No convincing evidence outgroups are denied uniquely human characteristics: Distinguishing intergroup preference from trait-based dehumanization. Cognition, 212, 104682. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104682
30.
FiskeA. P. (1992). The four elementary forms of sociality: Framework for a unified theory of social relations. Psychological Review, 99(4), 689–723. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.99.4.689
31.
FowlerL.UtychS. (2021). Are people better employees than machines? Dehumanizing language and employee performance appraisals. Social Science Quarterly, 102(4), 2006–2019. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.13057
32.
FranklV. E. (1985). Man’s search for meaning. Simon and Schuster.
33.
FredricksonB. L.RobertsT. A. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(2), 173–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x
34.
FrommE. (2000). The art of loving: The centennial edition. A&C Black.
35.
GasiorowskaA.ZaleskiewiczT. (2021). Trading in search of structure: Market relationships as a compensatory control tool. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 120(2), 300–334. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000246
36.
GasiorowskaA.ZaleskiewiczT. (2023). Attachment orientations moderate people’s preferences for market versus communal relationships under a control threat. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 40(10), 3344–3366. https://doi.org/10.1177/02654075231173460
37.
GervaisS. J.SáezG.RiemerA. R.KleinO. (2020). The social interaction model of objectification: A process model of goal-based objectifying exchanges between men and women. British Journal of Social Psychology, 59(1), 248–283. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12339
38.
Giner-SorollaR.RussellP. S. (2019). Not just disgust: Fear and anger also relate to intergroup dehumanization. Collabra: Psychology, 5(1), 56. https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.211
39.
GolossenkoA.PalumboH.MathaiM.TranH. A. (2023). Am I being dehumanized? Development and validation of the experience of dehumanization measurement. British Journal of Social Psychology, 62(3), 1285–1329. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12633
40.
GruenfeldD. H.InesiM. E.MageeJ. C.GalinskyA. D. (2008). Power and the objectification of social targets. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(1), 111–127. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.95.1.111
HaslamN.FiskeA. P. (1992). Implicit relationship prototypes: Investigating five theories of the cognitive organization of social relationships. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 28(5), 441–474. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(92)90041-H
HayesA. F. (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. The Guilford Press.
47.
HeintzelmanS. J.BaconP. L. (2015). Relational self-construal moderates the effect of social support on life satisfaction. Personality and Individual Differences, 73, 72–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.09.021
ImaiK.KeeleL.TingleyD. (2010). A general approach to causal mediation analysis. Psychological Methods, 15(4), 309–334. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020761
50.
KarantzasG. C.SimpsonJ. A.PizziraniB. (2022). The loss of humanness in close relationships: An interpersonal model of dehumanization. Current Opinion in Psychology, 46, 101317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101317
51.
KashdanT. B.BreenW. E. (2007). Materialism and diminished well–being: Experiential avoidance as a mediating mechanism. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 26(5), 521–539. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2007.26.5.521
52.
KingL. A.HicksJ. A.KrullJ. L.Del GaisoA. K. (2006). Positive affect and the experience of meaning in life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(1), 179–196. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.1.179
53.
KrausM. W.ChenS.KeltnerD. (2011). The power to be me: Power elevates self-concept consistency and authenticity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47(5), 974–980. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2011.03.017
KteilyN.HodsonG.BruneauE. (2016). They see us as less than human: Metadehumanization predicts intergroup conflict via reciprocal dehumanization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 110(3), 343–370. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000044
56.
KteilyN. S.LandryA. P. (2022). Dehumanization: Trends, insights, and challenges. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 26(3), 222–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2021.12.003
57.
KuzminskaA. O.GasiorowskaA.HełkaA. M.ZaleskiewiczT. (2024). Market mindset can increase allocations in the trust game through proportional thinking. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 30(2), 376–390. https://doi.org/10.1037/xap0000499
58.
KuzminskaA. O.GasiorowskaA.ZaleskiewiczT. (2023). Market mindset hinders interpersonal trust: The exposure to market relationships makes people trust less through elevated proportional thinking and reduced state empathy. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 76(8), 1830–1851. https://doi.org/10.1177/17470218221126416
59.
LakensD.CaldwellA. R. (2021). Simulation-based power analysis for factorial analysis of variance designs. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science, 4(1), 2515245920951503. https://doi.org/10.1177/2515245920951503
60.
LambertN. M.StillmanT. F.HicksJ. A.KambleS.BaumeisterR. F.FinchamF. D. (2013). To belong is to matter: Sense of belonging enhances meaning in life. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(11), 1418–1427. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167213499186
61.
LangF. R.WagnerJ.NeyerF. J. (2009). Interpersonal functioning across the lifespan: Two principles of relationship regulation. Advances in Life Course Research, 14(1–2), 40–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alcr.2009.03.004
62.
LeB. M.ImpettE. A.KoganA.WebsterG. D.ChengC. (2013). The personal and interpersonal rewards of communal orientation. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 30(6), 694–710. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407512466227
63.
LeB. M.ImpettE. A.LemayE. P.Jr.MuiseA.TskhayK. O. (2018). Communal motivation and well-being in interpersonal relationships: An integrative review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 144(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000133
64.
LeaS. E.WebleyP. (2006). Money as tool, money as drug: The biological psychology of a strong incentive. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 29(2), 161–176. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X06009046
65.
LemayE. P.JrLeB. M.ClarkM. S. (2023). Listening and the pursuit of communal relationships. Current Opinion in Psychology, 52, 101611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101611
66.
LiT.FungH. H. (2019). Communal one day, exchange the next: Daily relationship orientation mediates the influence of perceived stress on constructive interactions in close relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 36(7), 2096–2115. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407518779747
67.
MacKinnonD. P.ValenteM. J.GonzalezO. (2020). The correspondence between causal and traditional mediation analysis: The link is the mediator by treatment interaction. Prevention Science, 21(2), 147–157. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-019-01076-4
68.
MarkusH. R.KitayamaS. (2014). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. In AltbachP. G.ArnoldK.KingI. C. (Eds.), College student development and academic life (pp. 264–293). Routledge.
69.
MartinA. E.MasonM. F. (2022). What does it mean to be (seen as) human? The importance of gender in humanization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 123(2), 292–315. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000293
70.
McClintockC. G.KramerR. M.KeilL. J. (1984). Equity and social exchange in human relationships. In BerkowitzL. (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 17, pp. 183–228). Academic Press.
71.
MillerJ. G.AkiyamaH.KapadiaS. (2017). Cultural variation in communal versus exchange norms: Implications for social support. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113(1), 81–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000091
72.
MursteinB. I.CerretoM.Mac DonaldM. G. (1977). A theory and investigation of the effect of exchange-orientation on marriage and friendship. Journal of Marriage and Family, 39(3), 543–548. https://doi.org/10.2307/350908
73.
Mwilambwe-TshiloboL.GeT.ChongM.FergusonM. A.MisicB.BurrowA. L.LeahyR. M.SprengR. N. (2019). Loneliness and meaning in life are reflected in the intrinsic network architecture of the brain. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 14(4), 423–433. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsz021
74.
NguyenN.BessonT.StinglhamberF. (2022). Emotional labor: The role of organizational dehumanization. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 27(2), 179–194. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000289
75.
NunnallyJ. O. (1978). Psychometric theory. McGraw-Hill.
76.
OargaC.StavrovaO.FetchenhauerD. (2015). When and why is helping others good for well-being? The role of belief in reciprocity and conformity to society’s expectations. European Journal of Social Psychology, 45(2), 242–254. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2092
77.
OrehekE.ForestA. L.BarbaroN. (2018). A people-as-means approach to interpersonal relationships. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(3), 373–389. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617744522
78.
PallantJ. (2020). SPSS survival manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using IBM SPSS. Routledge.
79.
PhillipsB. (2022). “They’re not true humans:” Beliefs about moral character drive denials of humanity. Cognitive Science, 46(2), e13089. https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.13089
80.
RosenbergM. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton University Press.
81.
RosenbergM.McCulloughB. C. (1981). Mattering: Inferred significance and mental health among adolescents. Research in Community & Mental Health, 2, 163–182.
82.
RuttanR. L.LucasB. J. (2018). Cogs in the machine: The prioritization of money and self-dehumanization. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 149, 47–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2018.08.007
83.
RuyterK. D.WetzelsM. (2000). Determinants of a relational exchange orientation in the marketing-manufacturing interface: An empirical investigation. Journal of Management Studies, 37(2), 257–276. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6486.00180
84.
RyanR. M.DeciE. L. (2000). The darker and brighter sides of human existence: Basic psychological needs as a unifying concept. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 319–338. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_03
85.
SainzM.MartínezR.MoyaM.Rodríguez-BailónR.VaesJ. (2021). Lacking socio-economic status reduces subjective well-being through perceptions of meta-dehumanization. British Journal of Social Psychology, 60(2), 470–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12412
86.
SchlegelR. J.HicksJ. A.ArndtJ.KingL. A. (2009). Thine own self: True self-concept accessibility and meaning in life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(2), 473–490. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014060
87.
SchoemannA. M.BoultonA. J.ShortS. D. (2017). Determining power and sample size for simple and complex mediation models. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 8(4), 379–386. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617715068
88.
SchroederJ.EpleyN. (2020). Demeaning: Dehumanizing others by minimizing the importance of their psychological needs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119(4), 765–791. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000199
89.
SheldonK. M.ElliotA. J.KimY.KasserT. (2001). What is satisfying about satisfying events? Testing 10 candidate psychological needs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(2), 325–339. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.80.2.325
90.
SommerK. L.WilliamsK. D.CiaroccoN. J.BaumeisterR. F. (2001). When silence speaks louder than words: Explorations into the intrapsychic and interpersonal consequences of social ostracism. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 23(4), 225–243. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15324834BASP2304_1
91.
SpencerS. J.ZannaM. P.FongG. T. (2005). Establishing a causal chain: Why experiments are often more effective than mediational analyses in examining psychological processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(6), 845–851. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.6.845
92.
SprecherS. (1998). The effect of exchange orientation on close relationships. Social Psychology Quarterly, 61(3), 220–231. https://doi.org/10.2307/2787109
93.
SprecherS.ReganP. C. (2002). Liking some things (in some people) more than others: Partner preferences in romantic relationships and friendships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 19(4), 463–481. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407502019004048
94.
StegerM. F.FrazierP.OishiS.KalerM. (2006). The meaning in life questionnaire: Assessing the presence of and search for meaning in life. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53(1), 80–93. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.53.1.80
95.
StegerM. F.KashdanT. B.SullivanB. A.LorentzD. (2008). Understanding the search for meaning in life: Personality, cognitive style, and the dynamic between seeking and experiencing meaning. Journal of Personality, 76(2), 199–228. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00484.x
96.
StillmanT. F.BaumeisterR. F. (2009). Uncertainty, belongingness, and four needs for meaning. Psychological Inquiry, 20(4), 249–251. https://doi.org/10.1080/10478400903333544
97.
StillmanT. F.BaumeisterR. F.LambertN. M.CrescioniA. W.DeWallC. N.FinchamF. D. (2009). Alone and without purpose: Life loses meaning following social exclusion. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(4), 686–694. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.03.007
98.
TruchotD.DeregardM. (2001). Perceived inequity, communal orientation and burnout: The role of helping models. Work & Stress, 15(4), 347–356. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678370110086380
99.
VäänänenA.BuunkB. P.KivimäkiM.PenttiJ.VahteraJ. (2005). When it is better to give than to receive: Long-term health effects of perceived reciprocity in support exchange. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(2), 176–193. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.2.176
100.
VaesJ.LoughnanS.PuviaE. (2014). The inhuman body: When sexual objectification becomes dehumanizing. In BainP. G.VaesJ.LeyensJ.-P. (Eds.), Humanness and dehumanization (pp. 186–204). Psychology Press.
101.
WangX.ChenH.ChenZ.LuoS. (2022). An exchange orientation results in an instrumental approach in intimate relationships. British Journal of Social Psychology, 61(4), 1144–1159. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12530
102.
WatsonD.ClarkL. A.TellegenA. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063–1070. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063
103.
WeemsC. F. (2025). An alternative framework for nonexperimental cross-sectional mediation studies: Associational variable analysis. Psychological Methods. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000774
104.
WilliamsK. D.CheungC. K.ChoiW. (2000). Cyberostracism: Effects of being ignored over the Internet. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(5), 748–762. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.79.5.748
105.
WrzesniewskiA.DuttonJ. E.DebebeG. (2003). Interpersonal sensemaking and the meaning of work. Research in Organizational Behavior, 25, 93–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-3085(03)25003-6
106.
ZadroL.WilliamsK. D.RichardsonR. (2004). How low can you go? Ostracism by a computer is sufficient to lower self-reported levels of belonging, control, self-esteem, and meaningful existence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40(4), 560–567. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2003.11.006
107.
ZaleskiewiczT.GasiorowskaA.KuzminskaA. (2022). Market mindset reduces endorsement of individualizing moral foundations, but not in liberals. Journal of Social and Political Psychology, 10(2), 743–759. https://doi.org/10.5964/jspp.8163
108.
ZhangH.ChanD. K. S.XiaS.TianY.ZhuJ. (2017). Cognitive, emotional, and motivational consequences of dehumanization. Social Cognition, 35(1), 18–39. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2017.35.1.18
109.
ZhangS.FengR.FuY. N.LiuQ.HeY.TurelO.HeQ. (2022). The bidirectional relationship between basic psychological needs and meaning in life: A longitudinal study. Personality and Individual Differences, 197, 111784. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2022.111784
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
