Did Descriptive and Prescriptive Norms About Gender Equality at Home Change During the COVID-19 Pandemic? A Cross-National Investigation

Abstract

Using data from 15 countries, this article investigates whether descriptive and prescriptive gender norms concerning housework and child care (domestic work) changed after the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. Results of a total of 8,343 participants (M = 19.95, SD = 1.68) from two comparable student samples suggest that descriptive norms about unpaid domestic work have been affected by the pandemic, with individuals seeing mothers’ relative to fathers’ share of housework and child care as even larger. Moderation analyses revealed that the effect of the pandemic on descriptive norms about child care decreased with countries’ increasing levels of gender equality; countries with stronger gender inequality showed a larger difference between pre- and post-pandemic. This study documents a shift in descriptive norms and discusses implications for gender equality—emphasizing the importance of addressing the additional challenges that mothers face during health-related crises.

Keywords

COVID-19 descriptive gender norms prescriptive gender norms gender stereotypes domestic work cross-national comparison work-family division

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Adams-Prassl

Boneva

Golin

Rauh

(2020). Inequality in the impact of the coronavirus shock: Evidence from real time surveys. Journal of Public Economics, 189, 104245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104245

Adler

N. E.

Epel

E. S.

Castellazzo

Ickovics

J. R.

(2000). Relationship of subjective and objective social status with psychological and physiological functioning: Preliminary data in healthy, White women. Health Psychology, 19(6), 586–592. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.19.6.586

Ajzen

(1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T

Allen

M. S.

Iliescu

Greiff

(2022). Single item measures in psychological science: A call to action. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 38(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000699

Alon

T. M.

Doepke

Olmstead-Rumsey

Tertilt

(2020). The impact of COVID-19 on gender equality (No. w26947). National Bureau of Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.3386/w26947

Andrew

Cattan

Costa Dias

Farquharson

Kraftman

Krutikova

Phimister

Sevilla

(2020). The gendered division of paid and domestic work under lockdown (Paper No. 13500). Institute of Labor Economics. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3654937

Anvari

Kievit

Lakens

Pennington

C. R.

Przybylski

A. K.

Tiokhin

Wiernik

B. M.

Orben

(2023). Not all effects are indispensable: Psychological science requires verifiable lines of reasoning for whether an effect matters. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 18(2), 503–507. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916221091565

Bass

B. C.

(2015). Preparing for parenthood? Gender, aspirations, and the reproduction of labor market inequality. Gender & Society, 29(3), 362–385. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243214546936

Bicchieri

Mercier

(2014). Norms and beliefs: How change occurs. In Xenitidou

Edmonds

(Eds.), The Complexity of social norms (pp. 37–54). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-05308-0_3

10.

Biroli

Bosworth

Della Giusta

Di Girolamo

Jaworska

Vollen

(2021). Family life in lockdown. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 687570. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.687570

11.

Blom

Hewitt

(2020). Becoming a female-breadwinner household in Australia: Changes in relationship satisfaction. Journal of Marriage and Family, 82, 1340–1357. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12653

12.

Boehnke

Lietz

Schreier

Wilhelm

(2011). Sampling: The selection of cases for culturally comparative psychological research. In Matsumoto

van de Vijver

F. J. R.

(Eds.), Cross-cultural research methods in psychology (pp. 101–129). Cambridge University Press.

13.

Brown

E. R.

Diekman

A. B.

(2010). What will I be? Exploring gender differences in near and distant possible selves. Sex Roles, 63(7), 568–579. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9827-x

14.

Carlson

D. L.

Petts

Pepin

(2020). Changes in US parents’ domestic labor during the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic. Sociological Inquiry, 92, 1217–1244. https://doi.org/10.1111/soin.12459

15.

Carriero

(2021). The role of culture in the gendered division of domestic labor: Evidence from migrant populations in Europe. Acta Sociologica, 64(1), 24–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001699320930073

16.

Casale

Posel

(2021). Gender inequality and the COVID-19 crisis: Evidence from a large national survey during South Africa’s lockdown. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 71, 100569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rssm.2020.100569

17.

Chung

Birkett

Forbes

Seo

(2021). Covid-19, flexible working, and implications for gender equality in the United Kingdom. Gender & Society, 35(2), 218–232. https://doi.org/10.1177/08912432211001304

18.

Cialdini

R. B.

(2003). Crafting normative messages to protect the environment. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(4), 105–109. https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-8721.01242

19.

Cialdini

R. B.

(2007). Descriptive social norms as underappreciated sources of social control. Psychometrika, 72(2), 263–268. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11336-006-1560-6

20.

Cialdini

R. B.

Reno

R. R.

Kallgren

C. A.

(1990). A focus theory of normative conduct: Recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(6), 1015–1026. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.58.6.1015

21.

Cialdini

R. B.

Trost

M. R.

(1998). Social influence: Social norms, conformity and compliance. In Gilbert

D. T.

Fiske

S. T.

Lindzey

(Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (pp. 151–192). McGraw-Hill.

22.

Corral-Verdugo

Aguilar-Luzón

M. D. C.

Hernández

(2019). Theoretical bases guiding conservation psychology. Papeles del Psicólogo—Psychologist Papers, 40(2), 174. https://doi.org/10.23923/pap.psicol2019.2897

23.

Coscioni

Silva-Ferraz

B. F.

Siegmund

Lins Araújo Costa

Chang

(2022). Psychological impact of COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil: Adaptation and validation of mental impact and distress screening instrument and the sociodemographic profile of impact. Journal of Social Issues, 78(1), 227–248. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12501

24.

Costoya

Echeverría

Edo

Rocha

Thailinger

(2022). Gender gaps within couples: Evidence of time re-allocations during COVID-19 in Argentina. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 43(2), 213–226. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-021-09770-8

25.

Craig

Churchill

(2021). Dual-earner parent couples’ work and care during COVID-19. Gender, Work & Organization, 28(Suppl. 1), 66–79. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwao.12497

26.

Croft

Schmader

Block

(2019). Life in the balance: Are women’s possible selves constrained by men’s domestic involvement? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 45(5), 808–823. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167218797294

27.

Del Boca

Oggero

Profeta

Rossi

. (2020). Women’s and men’s work, housework and childcare, before and during COVID-19. Review of Economics of the Household, 18(4), 1001–1017. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-020-09502-1

28.

Deshpande

(2022). The Covid-19 pandemic and gendered division of paid work, domestic chores and leisure: Evidence from India’s first wave. Economia Politica, 39(1), 75–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40888-021-00235-7

29.

Diekman

A. B.

Eagly

A. H.

(2000). Stereotypes as dynamic constructs: Women and men of the past, present, and future. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(10), 1171–1188. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0146167200262001

30.

Doxbeck

C. R.

Osberg

T. M.

(2021). It’s not all smoke and mirrors: The role of social norms, alcohol use, and pandemic partying in e-cigarette use during COVID-19. Substance Use & Misuse, 56(10), 1551–1558. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2021.1942058

31.

Eagly

A. H.

Koenig

A. M.

(2021). The vicious cycle linking stereotypes and social roles. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 30(4), 343–350. https://doi.org/10.1111/soin.12459

32.

Eagly

A. H.

Wood

(2012). Social role theory. In Kruglanski

A. W.

Tory Higgins

van Lange

(Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology (pp. 458–476). Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446249222.n49

33.

Farré

Fawaz

González

Graves

(2020). How the COVID-19 lockdown affected gender inequality in paid and unpaid work in Spain. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3643198

34.

Fisher

Languilaire

J.-C.

Lawthom

Nieuwenhuis

Petts

R. J.

Runswick-Cole

Yerkes

M. A.

(2020). Community, work, and family in times of COVID-19. Community, Work & Family, 23(3), 247–252. https://doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2020.1756568

35.

Fodor

É.

Gregor

Koltai

Kováts

. (2021). The impact of COVID-19 on the gender division of childcare work in Hungary. European Societies, 23(Suppl. 1), S95–S110. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616696.2020.1817522

36.

Frome

P. M.

Alfeld

C. J.

Eccles

J. S.

Barber

B. L.

(2006). Why don’t they want a male-dominated job? An investigation of women who changed their occupational aspirations. Educational Research and Evaluation, 12(4), 359–372. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803610600765786

37.

Greitemeyer

(2022). Prosocial modeling: Person role models and the media. Current Opinion in Psychology, 44, 135–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.08.024

38.

Haberkern

(2007). Time use and the household division of labour. Journal of Family Research, 19, 159–185. https://doi.org/10.20377/jfr-302

39.

Harmon-Jones

Mills

(2019). An introduction to cognitive dissonance theory and an overview of current perspectives on the theory. In Harmon-Jones

(Ed.), Cognitive dissonance: Reexamining a pivotal theory in psychology (pp. 3–24). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000135-001

40.

Heilman

Castro Bernardini

M. D. R.

Pfeifer

(2020). Caring under COVID-19: How the pandemic is—and is not—changing unpaid care and domestic work responsibilities in the United States. https://oxfamilibrary.openrepository.com/bitstream/handle/10546/621084/FINAL%20REPORT.pdf?sequence=1

41.

Hewstone

Martin

(2014). Social influence: Social norms, conformity and compliance. In Gilbert

D. T.

Fiske

S. T.

Lindzey

(Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (pp. 151–192). McGraw-Hill.

42.

Hipp

Bünning

(2021). Parenthood as a driver of increased gender inequality during COVID-19? Exploratory evidence from Germany. European Societies, 23(Suppl. 1), S658–S673. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616696.2020.1833229

43.

Hupkau

Petrongolo

(2020). Work, care and gender during the COVID-19 crisis. Fiscal Studies, 41(3), 623–651. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-5890.12245

44.

International Labour Organization. (2020). COVID-19 and the world of work (2nd ed.). https://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/WCMS_740877/lang–it/index.htm

45.

Jacobson

R. P.

Mortensen

C. R.

Cialdini

R. B.

(2011). Bodies obliged and unbound: Differentiated response tendencies for injunctive and descriptive social norms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(3), 433–448. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0021470

46.

Johnston

R. M.

Sheluchin

Van Der Linden

(2020). Evidence of exacerbated gender inequality in child care obligations in Canada and Australia during the COVID-19 pandemic. Politics & Gender, 16(4), 1131–1141. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X20000574

47.

Koch

S. C.

Luft

Kruse

(2005). Women and leadership–20 years later: A semantic connotation study. Social Science Information, 44(1), 9–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018405050433

48.

Kreyenfeld

Zinn

(2021). Coronavirus and care: How the coronavirus crisis affected fathers’ involvement in Germany. Demographic Research, 44, 99–124. https://doi.org/10.4054/DemRes.2021.44.4

49.

Kulic

Dotti Sani

G. M.

Strauss

Bellani

(2021). Economic disturbances in the COVID-19 crisis and their gendered impact on unpaid activities in Germany and Italy. European Societies, 23(Suppl. 1), S400–S416. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616696.2020.1828974

50.

Lachance-Grzela

Bouchard

(2010). Why do women do the lion’s share of housework? A decade of research. Sex Roles, 63(11–12), 767–780. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9797-z

51.

Larsen

K. S.

Long

(1988). Attitudes toward sex-roles: Traditional or egalitarian? Sex Roles, 19(1/2). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00292459

52.

Leong

Eom

Ishii

Aichberger

M. C.

Fetz

Müller

T. S.

Kim

H. S.

Sherman

D. K.

(2022). Individual costs and community benefits: Collectivism and individuals’ compliance with public health interventions. PLOS ONE, 17(11), Article e0275388. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275388

53.

Lott

(2019). Weniger Arbeit, mehr Freizeit? Wofür Mütter und Väter flexible Arbeitsarrangements nutzen [Less work, more free time? Why mothers and fathers use flexible work arrangements] (No. 47). Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaftliches Institut. https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/225410/1/wsi-report-47.pdf

54.

Lyttelton

Zang

Musick

(2020). Gender differences in telecommuting and implications for inequality at home and work. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3645561

55.

Mangiavacchi

Piccoli

Pieroni

(2021). Fathers matter: Intrahousehold responsibilities and children’s wellbeing during the COVID-19 lockdown in Italy. Economics & Human Biology, 42, 101016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2021.101016

56.

Meeussen

Veldman

Van Laar

(2016). Combining gender, work, and family identities: The cross-over and spill-over of gender norms into young adults’ work and family aspirations. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, Article 1781. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01781

57.

Meraviglia

Dudka

(2021). The gendered division of unpaid labor during the Covid-19 crisis: Did anything change? Evidence from Italy. International Journal of Sociology, 51(1), 64–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207659.2020.1832346

58.

Morens

D. M.

Fauci

A. S.

(2020). Emerging pandemic diseases: How we got to COVID-19. Cell, 182(5), 1077–1092. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2020.08.021

59.

Neighbors

Larimer

M. E.

Lewis

M. A.

(2004). Targeting misperceptions of descriptive drinking norms: Efficacy of a computer-delivered personalized normative feedback intervention. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(3), 434–447. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.72.3.434

60.

Nolan

J. M.

Schultz

P. W.

Cialdini

R. B.

Goldstein

N. J.

Griskevicius

(2008). Normative social influence is underdetected. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(7), 913–923. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167208316691

61.

Olsson

M. I. T.

Van Grootel

Block

Schuster

Meeussen

Van Laar

Schmader

Croft

Sun

M. S.

Ainsaar

Aarntzen

Adamus

Anderson

Atkinson

Avicenna

Bąbel

Barth

Benson-Greenwald

T. M.

Maloku

. . . Martiny

S. E.

(2023). Gender gap in parental leave intentions: Evidence from 37 countries. Political Psychology, 44, 1163–1192. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12880

62.

Oreffice

Quintana-Domeque

(2021). Gender inequality in COVID-19 times: Evidence from UK Prolific participants. Journal of Demographic Economics, 87(2), 261–287. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3648803

63.

Parker

(2015). Despite progress, women still bear heavier load than men in balancing work and family. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/03/10/women-still-bear-heavier-load-than-men-balancing-work-family/

64.

Peterson

R. A.

(2001). On the use of college students in social science research: Insights from a second-order meta-analysis. Journal of Consumer Research, 28(3), 450–461. https://doi.org/10.1086/323732

65.

Petts

R. J.

André

Carlson

D. L.

Chung

Milkie

M. A.

Remery

Scheibling

Shafer

Yerkes

M. A.

(2023). Fathers stepping up? A cross-national comparison of fathers’ domestic labour and parents’ satisfaction with the division of domestic labour during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Family Studies, 29, 2650–2679. https://doi.org/10.1080/13229400.2023.2181849

66.

Reichelt

Makovi

Sargsyan

(2020). The impact of COVID-19 on gender inequality in the labor market and gender-role attitudes. European Societies, 23(Suppl. 1), S228–S245. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616696.2020.1823010

67.

Ridgeway

C. L.

(2011). Framed by gender: How gender inequality persists in the modern world. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199755776.001.0001

68.

Rimal

R. N.

Real

(2005). How behaviors are influenced by perceived norms: A test of the theory of normative social behavior. Communication Research, 32(3), 389–414. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0093650205275385

69.

Roberts

S. O.

(2022). Descriptive-to-prescriptive (D2P) reasoning: An early emerging bias to maintain the status quo. European Review of Social Psychology, 33(2), 289–322. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2021.19635

70.

Rosenfeld

D. L.

Tomiyama

A. J.

(2021). Can a pandemic make people more socially conservative? Political ideology, gender roles, and the case of COVID-19. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 51(4), 425–433. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12745

71.

Rowland

(2023). Young people aged 18 to 24 are the age group most likely to feel anxious in the UK, according to our recent survey. Mental Health Foundation. https://www.mentalhealth.org.uk/about-us/news/young-people-most-likely-feel-anxious-according-our-recent-survey

72.

Rudert

S. C.

Gleibs

I. H.

Gollwitzer

Häfner

Hajek

K. V.

Harth

N. S.

Häusser

J. A.

Imhoff

Schneider

(2021). Us and the virus: Understanding the COVID-19 pandemic through a social psychological lens. European Psychologist, 26(4), 259–271. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000457

73.

Rudert

S. C.

Janke

(2022). Following the crowd in times of crisis: Descriptive norms predict physical distancing, stockpiling, and prosocial behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 25(7), 1819–1835. https://doi.org/10.1177/13684302211023562

74.

Scheifele

Steffens

M. C.

Van Laar

(2021). Which representations of their gender group affect men’s orientation towards care? The case of parental leave-taking intentions. PLOS ONE, 16(12), Article e0260950. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0260950

75.

Sczesny

Bosak

Diekman

Twenge

(2007). Dynamics of sex role stereotypes. In Kashima

Fiedler

Freytag

(Eds.), Stereotype dynamics: Language-based approaches to the formation, maintenance, and transformation of stereotypes (pp. 137–163). Lawrence Erlbaum.

76.

Sevilla

Smith

(2020). Baby steps: The gender division of childcare during the COVID-19 pandemic. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 36(Suppl. 1), S169–S186. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxrep/graa027

77.

Shockley

K. M.

Clark

M. A.

Dodd

King

E. B.

(2021). Work-family strategies during COVID-19: Examining gender dynamics among dual-earner couples with young children. Journal of Applied Psychology, 106(1), 15–28. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000857

78.

Smith

J. R.

Louis

W. R.

Terry

D. J.

Greenaway

K. H.

Clarke

M. R.

Cheng

(2012). Congruent or conflicted? The impact of injunctive and descriptive norms on environmental intentions. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 32(4), 353–361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2012.06.001

79.

Talbott

L. L.

Wilkinson

L. L.

Moore

C. G.

Usdan

S. L.

(2014). The role of injunctive norms and alcohol use during the first-semester of college. Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 58(1), 60–81. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48506405

80.

Thorsteinsen

Parks-Stamm

E. J.

Kvalø

Olsen

Martiny

S. E.

(2022). Mothers’ domestic responsibilities and well-being during the COVID-19 lockdown: The moderating role of gender essentialist beliefs about parenthood. Sex Roles, 87(1), 85–98. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-022-01307-z

81.

Thulin

Vilhelmson

Johansson

(2019). New telework, time pressure, and time use control in everyday life. Sustainability—Online, 11, Article 3067. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11113067

82.

Twenge

J. M.

(2001). Changes in women’s assertiveness in response to status and roles: A cross-temporal meta-analysis, 1931–1993. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(1), 133–145. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.1.133

83.

United Nations Development Programme. (2019). Human development report 2019. https://annualreport.undp.org/2019/

84.

United Nations Inter-Agency Network on Women and Gender Equality. (2021). IANWGE compendium on integrating gender considerations in the response to COVID-19: Key messages and actions from UN entities. UN Women Headquarters. https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Headquarters/Attachments/Sections/Library/Publications/2020/IANWGE-compendium-on-integrating-gender-considerations-in-the-response-to-COVID-19-en.pdf

85.

World Economic Forum. (2022). Global gender gap report 2022: Insight report. https://www.weforum.org/publications/global-gender-gap-report-2022/

86.

World Economic Forum. (2021). Global gender gap report 2021: Insight report. https://www.weforum.org/publications/global-gender-gap-report-2021/

87.

World Economic Forum. (2020). Global gender gap report 2020: Insight report. https://www.weforum.org/reports/gender-gap-2020-report-100-years-pay-equality/

88.

Yaish

Mandel

Kristal

(2021). Has the economic lockdown following the Covid-19 pandemic changed the gender division of labor in Israel? Gender & Society, 35(2), 256–270. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243221100129

89.

Yang

Kelly

E. L.

Kubzansky

L. D.

Berkman

(2023). Working from home and worker well-being: New evidence from Germany. ILR Review, 76(3), 504–531. https://doi.org/10.1177/00197939221148716

90.

Yerkes

M. A.

André

S. C.

Besamusca

J. W.

Kruyen

P. M.

Remery

C. L.

van der Zwan

Beckers

D. G. J.

Geurts

S. A.

(2020). “Intelligent” lockdown, intelligent effects? Results from a survey on gender (in)equality in paid work, the division of childcare and household work, and quality of life among parents in the Netherlands during the Covid-19 lockdown. PLOS ONE, 15(11), Article e0242249. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242249

91.

Yerkes

M. A.

Hewitt

(2019). Part-time strategies of women and men of childbearing age in the Netherlands and Australia. In Yerkes

M. A.

Hewitt

(Eds.), Dualisation of part-time work (pp. 265–288). Policy Press. https://doi.org/10.1332/policypress/9781447348603.003.0011

92.

Yildirim

T. M.

Eslen-Ziya

(2021). The differential impact of COVID-19 on the work conditions of women and men academics during the lockdown. Gender, Work & Organization, 28(Suppl. 1), 243–249. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwao.12529

93.

Zafra

E. L.

Garcia-Retamero

(2011). The impact of nontraditionalism on the malleability of gender stereotypes in Spain and Germany. International Journal of Psychology, 46(4), 249–258. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207594.2010.551123

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

3.58 MB