Three studies tested whether individualism–collectivism moderates the extent to which values are endorsed as ideal self-guides and ought self-guides, and the consequences for regulatory focus and emotion. Across Studies 1 and 2, individualists endorsed values that are relatively central to the self as stronger ideals than oughts, whereas collectivists endorsed them as ideals and oughts to a similar degree. Study 2 found that individualists justified central values using reasons that were more promotion focused than prevention focused, whereas collectivists used similar amount of prevention-focused and promotion-focused reasons. In Study 3, individualists felt more dejected after violating a central (vs. peripheral) value and more agitated after violating a peripheral (vs. central) value. Collectivists felt a similar amount of dejection regardless of values centrality and more agitation after violating central (vs. peripheral) values. Overall, culture has important implications for how we regulate values that are central or peripheral to our self-concept.
AllportG. W.VernonP. E.LindzeyG. (1960). Study of values: Manual and test booklet (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
2.
BardiA.SchwartzS. H. (2003). Values and behavior: Strength and structure of relations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 1207-1220. doi:10.1177/0146167203254602
3.
CarverC. S.ScheierM. F. (1986). Functional and dysfunctional responses to anxiety: The interaction between expectancies and self-focused attention. In SchwarzerR. (Ed.), Self-related cognitions in anxiety and motivation (pp. 111-141). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
4.
ChanP. R. D. K. S. (1997). Cultural differences in the relation between self-discrepancy and life satisfaction. International Journal of Psychology, 32, 387-398. doi:10.1080/002075997400638
5.
CooperJ. (1999). Unwanted consequences and the self: In search of the motivation for dissonance reduction. In Harmon-JonesE.MillsJ. (Eds.), Cognitive dissonance: Progress on a pivotal theory in social psychology (pp. 149-173). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
6.
ElliotA. J.DevineP. G. (1994). On the motivational nature of cognitive dissonance: Dissonance as psychological discomfort. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 382-394. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.3.382
7.
FriedmanR.ForsterJ. (2001). The effects of promotion and prevention cues on creativity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 1001-1013. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.6.1001
8.
HamamuraT.MeijerZ.HeineS. J.KamayaK.HoriI. (2009). Approach—Avoidance motivation and information processing: A cross-cultural analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35, 454-462. doi:10.1177/0146167208329512
9.
HayesA. F.KrippendorffK. (2007). Answering the call for a standard reliability measure for coding data. Communication Methods and Measures, 1, 77-89. doi:10.1080/19312450709336664
10.
HeckR. H.ThomasS. L.TabataL. N. (2013). Multilevel and longitudinal modeling with IBM SPSS (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
11.
HigginsE. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94, 319-340. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.94.3.319
12.
HigginsE. T. (1989). Self-discrepancy theory: What patterns of self-beliefs cause people to suffer? In BerkowitzL. (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 20, pp. 93-136). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
13.
HigginsE. T. (1996). The “self digest”: Self-knowledge serving self-regulatory functions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 1062-1083. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.71.6.1062
14.
HigginsE. T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52, 1280-1300. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.52.12.1280
15.
HigginsE. T. (1998). Promotion and prevention: Regulatory focus as a motivational principle. In BerkowitzL. (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 1-46). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
16.
HigginsE. T.BondR. N.KleinR.StraumanT. (1986). Self-discrepancies and emotional vulnerability: How magnitude, accessibility, and type of discrepancy influence affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 5-15. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.1.5
17.
HigginsE. T.KleinR.StraumanT. (1985). Self-concept discrepancy theory: A psychological model for distinguishing among different aspects of depression and anxiety. Social cognition, 3, 51-76. doi:10.1521/soco.1985.3.1.51
18.
HigginsE. T.ShahJ.FriedmanR. (1997). Emotional responses to goal attainment: Strength of regulatory focus as moderator. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 515-525. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.515
19.
HigginsE. T.TykocinskiO. (1992). Seff-discrepancies and biographical memory: Personality and cognition at the level of psychological situation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 527-535. doi:10.1177/0146167292185002
20.
JohnsonF. (1985). The Western concept of self. In MarsellaA.VosG. D.HsuF. L. K. (Eds.), Culture and self: Asian and Western perspectives (pp. 91-138). New York, NY: Tavistock.
21.
KimH.MarkusH. R. (1999). Uniqueness or deviance, harmony or conformity: A cultural analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 785-800. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.4.785
22.
KimK. B.AubreyJ. S. (2015). A cross-cultural comparison of cognitive and affective mediators in the relationship between media use and body image disturbance: Focusing on US and Korean women. Asian Journal of Communication, 25, 507-524. doi:10.1080/01292986.2014.995681
23.
KluckhohnC. (1951). Values and value-orientations in the theory of action: An exploration in definition and classification. In ParsonsT.ShilsE. (Eds.), Toward a general theory of action (pp. 388-433). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
24.
KluckhohnF. R.StrodtbeckF. L. (1961). Variations in value orientations. Evanston IL: Row, Peterson.
LeeA. Y.AakerJ. L.GardnerW. L. (2000). The pleasures and pains of distinct self-construals: The role of interdependence in regulatory focus. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 1122-1134. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.6.1122
27.
LeikasS.LonnqvistJ.VerkasaloM.LindemanM. (2009). Regulatory focus systems and personal values. European Journal of Social Psychology, 39, 415-429. doi:10.1002/ejsp.547
28.
LockwoodP.MarshallT. C.SadlerP. (2005). Promoting success or preventing failure: Cultural differences in motivation by positive and negative role models. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 379-392. doi:10.1177/0146167204271598
29.
MarkusH. R.KitayamaS. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224-253. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.98.2.224
30.
MillerJ. G. (1988). Bridging the content-structure dichotomy: Culture and the self. In BondM. H. (Ed.), The cross-cultural challenge to social psychology (pp. 266-281). Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE.
31.
MillerJ. G.BersoffD. M.HarwoodR. L. (1990). Perceptions of social responsibilities in India and in the United States: Moral imperatives or personal decisions?Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 33-47. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.58.1.33
32.
MillerJ. G.DasR.ChakravarthyS. (2011). Culture and the role of choice in agency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 46-61. doi:10.1037/a0023330
33.
MorrisM. W. (2013). Values as the essence of culture: Foundation or fallacy?Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 45, 14-24. doi:10.1177/0022022113513400
34.
NakaneC. (1970). Japanese society. Berkeley: University of California Press.
35.
PengK.NisbettR. E.WongN. Y. C. (1997). Validity problems comparing values across cultures and possible solutions. Psychological Methods, 2, 329-344.
36.
PreacherK. J.CurranP. J.BauerD. J. (2006). Computational tools for probing interaction effects in multiple linear regression, multilevel modeling, and latent curve analysis. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 31, 437-448. doi:10.3102/10769986031004437
37.
RoccasS.SagivL.SchwartzS. H.KnafoA. (2002). The big five personality factors and personal values. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 789-801. doi:10.1177/0146167202289008
38.
RohanM. J. (2000). A rose by any name? The values construct. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4, 255-277. doi:10.1207/S15327957PSPR0403_4
39.
RokeachM. (1973). The nature of human values. New York, NY: Free Press.
40.
SchultzP. W.ZeleznyL. (2003). Reframing environmental messages to be congruent with American values. Human Ecology Review, 10, 126-136.
41.
SchwartzS. H. (1990). Individualism-collectivism critique and proposed refinements. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 21, 139-157. doi:10.1177/0022022190212001
42.
SchwartzS. H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. In ZannaM. P. (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 10, pp. 221-279). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
43.
SchwartzS. H. (1999). A theory of cultural values and some implications for work. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 48, 23-47. doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.1999.tb00047.x
44.
SchwartzS. H. (2013). Rethinking the concept and measurement of societal culture in light of empirical findings. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 45, 5-13. doi:10.1177/0022022113490830
45.
SchwartzS. H.BardiA. (2001). Value hierarchies across cultures taking a similarities perspective. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32, 268-290. doi:10.1177/0022022101032003002
46.
SchwartzS. H.CieciuchJ.VecchioneM.DavidovE.FischerR.BeierleinC.. . . KontyM. (2012). Refining the theory of basic individual values. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103, 663-688. doi:10.1037/a0029393
47.
SchwartzS. H.RosM. (1995). Values in the West: A theoretical and empirical challenge to the individualism-collectivism cultural dimension. World Psychology, 1, 91-122.
48.
SchwartzS. H.SagivL. (1995). Identifying culture-specifics in the content and structure of values. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 26, 92-116. doi:10.1177/0022022195261007
49.
SeminG. R.HigginsE. T.de MontesL. G.EstourgetY. (2005). Linguistic signatures of regulatory focus: How abstraction fits promotion more than prevention. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 36-45. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.1.36
50.
SnijdersT. A. B.BoskerR. J. (2004). Multilevel analysis: An introduction to basic and advanced multilevel modeling. London, England: SAGE.
51.
SteigerJ. H. (2004). Beyond the F test: Effect size confidence intervals and tests of close fit in the analysis of variance and contrast analysis. Psychological Methods, 9, 164-182.
52.
SuhE.DienerE.OishiS.TriandisH. C. (1998). The shifting basis of life satisfaction judgments across cultures: Emotions versus norms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 482-493. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.2.482
53.
TriandisH. C.McCuskerC.HuiC. (1990). Multimethod probes of individualism and collectivism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 1006-1020. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.59.5.1006
54.
TsaiJ. L.KnutsonB.FungH. H. (2006). Cultural variation in affect valuation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 288-307. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.2.288
55.
VignolesV. L.OweE.BeckerM.BrownR. B.SmithP.EasterbrookM.. . . YamakogluN. (2014, July). Deconstructing “Independence vs. Interdependence”: A multidimensional approach to cultural models of selfhood. Paper presented at the 17th General Meeting of the European Association of Social Psychology, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
