This research is based on the theoretical conception of motives and goals as distinct motivational concepts. Previous research has demonstrated that discrepancies between implicit motives and goals have negative consequences for well-being. The authors have extended these findings to the explicit motive system, with four studies investigating the moderating role of the explicit achievement motive on the relationship between achievement goal striving and well-being. In line with their expectations, achievement goal striving was accompanied by high positive affect (Studies 1 and 2) and a high number of positive affective experiences (Study 3) only when the explicit achievement motive was high. Longitudinal Study 4 showed that the interaction between the explicit achievement motive and achievement goal commitment predicts changes in subjective well-being and health measured over a 3-month period.
Barron, K.E., & Harackiewicz, J.M. (2001). Achievement goals and optimal motivation: Testing multiple goal models. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 706-722.
3.
Baumann, N., Kaschel, R., & Kuhl, J. (2005). Striving for unwanted goals: Stress-dependent discrepancies between explicit and implicit achievement motives reduce subjective well-being and increase psychosomatic symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 781-799.
4.
Brophy, J. (2005). Goal theorists should move on from performance goals. Educational Psychologist, 40, 167-176.
5.
Brunstein, J.C. (1993). Personal goals and subjective well-being: A longitudinal study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1061-1070.
6.
Brunstein, J.C., & Maier, G.W. (2005). Implicit and self-attributed motives to achieve: Two separate but interacting needs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 205-222.
7.
Brunstein, J.C., Schultheiss, O.C., & Grässmann, R. (1998). Personal goals and emotional well-being: The moderating role of motive dispositions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 494-508.
8.
Cantor, N., Norem J. K., Niedenthal, P.M. , Langston, C.A., & Brower , A.M. (1987). Life tasks, self-concept ideals, and cognitive strategies in a life transition . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 1178-1191.
9.
Carver, C.S., & Scheier, M.F. (1998). On the self-regulation of behavior. New York: Cambridge University Press.
10.
Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 542-575.
11.
Diener, E., Emmons, R.A., Larsen, R.J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction With Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 74-75.
12.
Diener, E., Suh, E.M., Lucas, R.E., & Smith, H.L. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress . Psychological Bulletin, 125, 276-302.
13.
Donahue, E.M., Robins, R.W., Roberts, B.W., & John, O.P. (1993). The divided self: Concurrent and longitudinal effects of psychological adjustment and social roles on self-concept differentiation . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 834-846.
14.
Durik, A.M., & Harackiewicz, J.M. (2003). Achievement goals and intrinsic motivation: Coherence, concordance, and achievement orientation . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 378-385.
15.
Elliot, A.J. (1999). Approach and avoidance motivation and achievement goals. Educational Psychologist, 34, 169-189.
16.
Elliot, A.J. (2005). A conceptual history of the achievement goal construct . In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 52-72). New York: Guilford .
17.
Elliot, A.J., & Harackiewicz, J.M. (1996). Approach and avoidance achievement goals and intrinsic motivation: A meditational analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 461-475.
18.
Elliot, A.J., & McGregor, H.A. (2001). A 2 × 2 achievement goal framework. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 501-519.
19.
Elliot, A.J., Sheldon, K.M., & Church, M.A. (1997). Avoidance personal goals and subjective well-being . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 915-927.
20.
Elliot, A.J., & Thrash, T.M. (2002). Approach-avoidance motivation in personality: Approach and avoidance temperaments and goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 804-818.
21.
Emmons, R.A. (1986). Personal strivings: An approach to personality and subjective well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1058-1068.
22.
Emmons, R.A. (1989). The personal striving approach to personality . In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Goal concepts in personality and social psychology (pp. 87-126). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
23.
Emmons, R.A. (1992). Abstract versus concrete goals: Personal striving level, physical illness and psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 292-300.
24.
Emmons, R.A., & King, L.A. (1988). Conflict among personal strivings: Immediate and long-term implications for psychological and physical well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1040-1048.
25.
Emmons, R.A., & McAdams, D.P. (1991). Personal strivings and motive dispositions: Exploring the links. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17, 648-654.
26.
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Oxford, UK: Row, Peterson.
27.
Harackiewicz, J.M., Barron, K.E., & Elliot, A.J. (1998). Rethinking achievement goals: When are they adaptive for college students and why? Educational Psychologist, 33, 1-21.
28.
Harackiewicz, J.M., Barron, K.E., Tauer, J.M., & Elliot, A.J. (2002). Predicting success in college: A longitudinal study of achievement goals and ability measures as predictors of interest and performance from freshman year through graduation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 562-575.
29.
Higgins, E.T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52, 1280-1300.
30.
Jackson, D.N. (1974). Personality research form manual. Goshen, NY: Research Psychologists Press.
31.
Kehr, H.M. (2004). Implicit/explicit motive discrepancies and volitional depletion among managers. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 315-327.
32.
King, L.A. (1995). Wishes, motives, goals, and personal memories: Relations of measures of human motivation. Journal of Personality , 63, 985-1007.
33.
Krohne, H.W., Egloff, B., Kohlmann, C.-W., & Tausch, A. (1996). Untersuchung mit einer deutschen Version der "Positive and Negative Affect Schedule" (PANAS) [Investigations with a German version of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS)]. Diagnostica , 42, 139-156.
34.
Little, B. (1983). Personal projects: A rationale and method for investigation. Environment and Behavior, 15, 273-309.
35.
McAdams, D.P., Hoffman, B.J., Mansfield, E.D., & Day, R. (1996). Themes of agency and communion in significant autobiographical scenes. Journal of Personality, 64, 339-377.
36.
McClelland, D.C. (1985). Human motivation. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.
37.
McClelland, D.C., Atkinson, J.W., Clark, R.A., & Lowell, E.L. (1953). The achievement motive. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
38.
McClelland, D.C., Koestner, R., & Weinberger, J. (1989). How do self-attributed and implicit motives differ? Psychological Review, 96, 690-702.
39.
Midgley, C., Arunkumar, R., & Urdan, T. (1996). If I don't do well tomorrow, there's a reason: Predictors of adolescents' use of academic self-handicapping behavior. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 423-434.
40.
Midgley, C., Kaplan, A., & Middleton, M. (2001). Performance-approach goals: Good for what, for whom, under what circumstances, and at what cost?Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 77-86.
41.
Murray, H.A. (1938). Explorations in personality. New York: Oxford University Press.
42.
Nicholls, J.G. (1989). The competitive ethos and democratic education . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
43.
O'Connor, B.P. (1998). All-in-one programs for exploring interactions in moderated multiple regression. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 58, 833-837.
44.
Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P.M. (2004). Goal setting and goal striving . In M. B. Brewer & M. Hewstone (Eds.), Emotion and motivation (pp. 165-183). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
45.
Podsakoff, P.M., MacKenzie, S.B., Lee, J.Y., & Podsakoff, N.P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies . Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879-903.
46.
Riediger, M., & Freund, A.M. (2004). Interference and facilitation among personal goals: Differential associations with subjective well-being and persistent goal pursuit . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1511-1523.
47.
Schmuck, P., & Sheldon, K. M. (Eds.). (2001). Life goals and well-being: Towards a positive psychology of human striving. Ashland, OH: Hogrefe and Huber.
48.
Schultheiss, O.C., & Brunstein, J.C. (2005). An implicit motive perspective on competence. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 31-51). New York: Guilford.
49.
Schultheiss, O.C., Jones, N.M., Davis, A.Q., & Kley, C. (2008). The role of implicit motivation in hot and cold goal pursuit: Effects on goal progress, goal rumination, and emotional well-being . Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 971-987.
50.
Sheldon, K.M., Ryan, R.M., Rawsthorne, L.J., & Ilardi, B. (1997). Trait self and true self: Cross-role variation in the Big-Five personality traits and its relations with psychological authenticity and subjective well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1380-1393.
51.
Steele, C.M. (1999). The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self. In R. F. Baumeister (Ed.), The self in social psychology (pp. 372-390). New York: Psychology Press.
52.
Stumpf, H., & Angleitner, A. (1989). Langzeit-Stabilitätskoeffizienten der deutschen Personality Research Form (PRF; Form KB): Psychometrische und differentielle Aspekte [Long-term stability coefficients of the German Personality Research Form (PRF; Form KB): Psychometric and differential aspects]. Diagnostica, 35, 211-216.
53.
Stumpf, H., Angleitner, A., Wieck, T., Jackson, D.N., & Beloch-Till, H. (1985). Deutsche Personality Research Form (PRF) [German Personality Research Form (PRF)]. Göttingen , Germany: Hogrefe.
54.
Taylor, S.E., & Sherman, D.K. (2008). Self-enhancement and self-affirmation: The consequences of positive self-thought for motivation and health. In J. Y. Shah & W. L. Gardner (Eds.), Handbook of motivation science (pp. 57-70). New York: Guilford.
55.
Watson, D., & Clark, L.A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063-1070.
56.
Wiese, B.S., & Freund, A.M. (2005). Goal progress makes one happy, or does it? Longitudinal findings from the work domain. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 78, 287-304.
57.
Winter, D.G. (1991). Manual for scoring motive imagery in running text. Unpublished manuscript, University of Michigan.
58.
Woike, B.A. (1995). Most-memorable experiences: Evidence for a link between implicit and explicit motives and social cognitive processes in everyday life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 1081-1091.
