Reading Jael with Women from a Traumatized Community

Abstract

The story of Jael is interpreted in many different ways; the two main ones are that she is a hero to Israel, or she is a deceitful murderer. An incident that occurred in the Cape Flats, South Africa, some years ago throws light on local women’s interpretation of the Jael story. In the contemporary incident, a woman killed her son, but was viewed by women in the community not as a murderer but as a fellow-sufferer. In this study, women in the community and women in prison (some for murder) read the Jael text, act out the story, and share their views of what was happening in the biblical text. It is clear that contemporary women living in a violent community can contribute to a better understanding of the Jael text through their many parallel experiences.

This study arose out of contact with women in Polls-moor prison in South Africa, women with whom I had become friendly through weekly Bible studies, and some of whom I discovered were convicted “man-slayers”. There were several stories in the community too, of “a woman who had killed a man and been considered a hero by her neighbors”. These communities are generally “god-fearing” so I was interested in exploring how such women (those in prison and those not) might interpret the story in Judges 4-5 of a woman (Jael) killing a man (Sisera) and being considered a hero. Are there any parallels? Coming from their marginalized situations, do they see issues in the text that escape readers living in less violent and desperate circumstances?

There are two different accounts of the Jael story: in Judges 4 (vv.17-22) there is a narrative version, and in Judges 5 (vv.24-27) a short poetic description of what took place. Jael is not an Israelite and is married to a non-Israelite, but she kills the commander of the army of Israel’s enemy. Our interest is in what motivated her to perform such a daring act.

The outline of the events is described in the prose version, but the details, full of strong persuasive force, are found in the poem. From the context given in Judges 5 (and the rhetorical features used in the poem), it would seem that the writer’s purpose is to encourage all the tribes to take part in YHWH’s cause and muster to the battle (Webb 2012; Wong 2007). Because Jael does so (even though not an official combatant), she is described as “blessed” (5:24). However, her action of killing a man is neither glorified nor condemned (Schneider 2000, 92). Her motivation is not evident. She just seems to “fill the slot” in the Judges cycle of a “savior” who YHWH raises up in response to the people’s cry for help (4:3).

As this paper seeks to compare Jael’s story with a local parallel, we are interested in what motivated Jael to kill Sisera. The story told in chapter 4 does not give any indication of her motive, which may be a narrative device for undermining women characters (Fuchs 1988, 68-83). Another view is that the lack of an explicit motive in the text is to indicate that YHWH was orchestrating events, and Jael was simply a pawn in God’s plan (Amit 1987, 96-102). However, several implicit motives suggest themselves. For example, bearing in mind the possibility of her being violated by Sisera, or killed (by the Israelites, if seen to be colluding with the enemy and giving Sisera protection), it is possible her action is pragmatic, to save her own self (Fewell and Gunn 1990, 396). Moreover, although she recognized Sisera (4:18) and may have had a short time to plan ahead (Amit 1987, 98), her action seems to be relatively spontaneous (suggested by her using implements to hand) thus implying her quick-thinking and crafty response. The fact that it also serves the purposes of YHWH may not have been part of her motivation (Porter nd, 7).

Local parallel to the Jael story

This section considers the views of Jael held by various disadvantaged women in South Africa. A similar murder in their community (a woman killing an abusive man) is mentioned as a parallel to the story, and an assessment is given of how a community living with endemic violence views the murder of an “enemy” in their midst.

Before the views of some “Colored” women are given concerning Jael, it is important to understand their social context. The Cape Flats, where many of the “Colored” community live, is a very violent area with gang-warfare, a severe drug problem (including the very potent drug, Tik, which makes people highly aggressive), and taxi violence (with shoot-outs between competing franchises). In 2010 (but brought again to public attention recently through the release of an international film on the subject), a high-profile murder took place in this community, and gives some insight as to how violent acts such as Jael’s might be viewed. This event is briefly summarized below.

A 47-year-old woman, Ellen Pakkies, killed her 20-year-old son by strangulation, after six years of emotional and physical abuse, largely brought about as the result of his taking Tik. The murder seems to have been unplanned but was the culmination of a lifetime of abuse, from various men since her childhood years. After killing her son, Ellen went to work (as a caregiver for elderly people) and, at the end of the day, handed herself over to the police. Although the State prosecution called for a minimum 25-year sentence, she received so much support from the community (women even crowdsourced her bail) that she was given a suspended three-year sentence. Ellen claims that she “had no option but to kill (her) son … as life had become hell on earth.” She had tried to get him help (including from the police and the courts), but to no avail. “I knew I did wrong and, even if I had to, I was prepared to go to prison”, she said. A clinical psychologist said Ellen had “emotionally dissociated” as a defense mechanism to cope with what she had done. He believed she was both “a loving mother” (who even gave a tribute to her son at his funeral) and “an abused woman.” The psychologist noted that “a life-time of abuse accumulates until all the perpetrators become represented in the current one, and the person goes over the edge.”

Perceptions of “Colored” women to the Jael story

At the time of the empirical study, I was meeting weekly with a group of about twenty women in Polls-moor prison in Cape Town for a time of exploring biblical themes. The women were not familiar with the story of Jael, but when given a brief summary and asked, “What kind of woman was Jael,” the immediate response from the majority was “bad.” When asked “why?”, the answer was “Because she killed.” Only one lady felt that what she did was “good,” because it was done in self-defense and it prevented her being abused. I then asked them, “Who has heard of Ellen Pakkies?” “Everyone,” I was told. They all agreed that what Ellen did was in self-defense and understandable, given her extreme circumstances. The ladies then acted out the Jael story (to explore the events in greater detail). Their view then changed, with them generally asserting that there are situations where murder is the only way out.

I next had opportunity to explore the Jael story in some depth with a group of seven Colored women who meet weekly as a support group in one of the informal settlements in Cape Town. First, I told them the story, including as many details as seemed relevant. Then they acted out the story (twice), to get the flow of events into their thinking. Through the process I asked them various questions, trying to get them to imagine how they would have reacted in Jael’s situation. Then we talked about similar stories in their community (including the Ellen Pakkies story). Most of the responses were informal, spontaneous “asides” during the telling of the story. For example, when I mentioned that after Sisera had been killed, Barak also entered Jael’s tent (4:22), the exclamation from one of the young women was “Whew! She was having a good day!” For that young woman, sex was very much part of the story.

When they first heard the story, quite a number of the women felt that Jael had done “bad” having betrayed trust and killed. As we acted out the story and considered it more, all of them except one changed their minds and felt that she was acting defensively. However, one lady felt that she should have kept Sisera alive in her tent until Barak arrived, and then handed him over. The one who remained unchanging in her view (that murder is always wrong) was the lady who had taught the group “The ten commandments” the previous week, and “do not murder” was very much in her thinking. The other women seemed to think that one acts to preserve oneself, whatever it takes.

Theoretical support for local women’s perceptions of Jael story

A major theme in the book of Judges concerns the role of women, the interrelationship of women and violence, and the fact that many of the key women were non-Israelite. Related to this is the theme of “lack of safety inside the dwelling place” which is a metaphor for lack of safety for women’s bodies, and women’s bodies in turn represent the nation of Israel.

Rhetoric of ambiguity (Israel in a state of disorientation)

The big picture which the narrator presents is that Israel is in a state of “danger” and disorientation (which was to move the community towards the longing for the stability and order of a monarchy). A secondary theme that emerges across the book is the increasing reluctance on the part of Israelite tribes to participate in liberation wars (Wong 2007). The Jael pericope has been shown to contribute to both of these themes.

Judges 4 and 5 are part of the bigger picture of topsy-turvy-times presented by the narrator, a time when YHWH’s purpose was fulfilled through unusual, unexpected means. As Shouse (2005) notes, the power of a message (as in the book of Judges) is often less the result of its content and more its “ability to create affective resonances”. Through the rhetoric of instability and disorderliness, a longing is cultivated for a king who would give greater peace and predictability.

Although Jael does seem to be an “accidental hero” (Hackett 2004, 357), the narrator appears to have a strong motivation for presenting her as a fulfilment of Deborah’s prophecy, thereby showing that “divine providence works in surprising and unexpected ways” (Assis 2004, 13-14, 89). Moreover, she is also referred to as “most blessed” (5:23-24), probably because of her being one of the “participants” in YHWH’s battle, thereby adding to the rhetoric to the tribes to get involved. An analysis of the poetic features in Judges 5 suggests that a significant purpose of the song may be to praise those who participated in the battle, and to warn those who did not (Vincent 2000, 66-68, 81). The call to bless YHWH is linked not so much to the victory itself, but to the voluntary participation of the people in battle (Wong 2007, 8). Indeed, the focus on “participation and non-participation” is highlighted by many poetic features in the song, particularly chiastic structures (Dickie 2020, 194 and n.21.)

Throughout the book of Judges, norms presented in the Deuteronomist History (DH) are challenged. Things are not as they appear. Jael is one example of this: she is presented as a hero for Israel and yet initially she has mixed allegiance to both Israel and the Canaanite enemy (O’Connor 1986, 286). Other examples of “upside-downness” are apparent in that Ehud is the hero in chapter 3 despite being left-handed, which was considered ritually impure (Miller 1996); Gideon is hiding in fear in the winepress and yet is called a “mighty man of valor” (Judges 6:12); and a woman tosses down a millstone from a tower about to be set alight, and succeeds in severely wounding the commander (Judges 9:53). The book is full of surprises, and the reader must realize that anything is possible. This ambiguity and disorientation is a key element in understanding the text, and is discussed next.

Ambiguity and disorientation

Eric Christianson (2007) makes an interesting connection between film noir and the Jael episode. He notes (p.521) that they “share a remarkably similar rhetoric of ambiguity, resulting in an “experience of disorientation … (which) engages viewers in a risky negotiation of meaning.” Moreover, “the moral ambivalence, the criminality, the complex contradictions in motives and events, all conspire to make the viewer co-experience the anguish and insecurity” because the themes in some way “reflect social anxiety,” (Borde and Chaumeton 1996, 25). The ambiguity inherent in the stories leaves the reader unsure of many things which previously (during DH) had been considered inviolable.

For example, from God’s word to Abraham and Jacob concerning the promise of land (Gen 13:14-17; 28:13-15; 35:12), which was then repeated to Moses (Deut 34:4) and Joshua (Josh 1:2-6), Israel had assumed the “Promised Land” was hers and she would conquer it, as a permanent possession. Indeed, Israel suffered some defeats (e.g. Ai, Josh 7:1-5) but these were reversed (e.g. Josh 8) and Joshua ended his leadership with the injunction to Israel to complete the possession of the land, with the promise of victory (Josh 23:4-5). However, chapter 1 of Judges (vv.27-36) mentions various defeats, and chapter 3 begins by stating that “these are the nations that the LORD left, to test Israel …” (3:1). This idea was contrary to all that the leadership of Israel had assumed, in terms of Israel’s relationship with “the land” and the LORD’s promise concerning it.

Another upset that occurs in Judges happens in the understanding of gender roles. Through DH, the roles of men and women had been strictly defined. For example, no woman had assumed leadership of the people of God. But in Judges 4:8, the appointed (male) leader refuses to act unless a woman, Deborah, accompanies him. Further the notion that women (in particular their wombs) are simply “the spoil” of battle (5:30) is deconstructed with a role reversal (the man becoming “the spoil” of a woman).

Also, during DH, weapons used against an enemy are the traditional armaments of war, but in the book of Judges, household items (such as a tent-peg and hammer, or a millstone) are used to kill or injure the enemy. This book upsets the norms in all these ways and leaves the reader feeling unsure of what to expect, and consequently insecure.

Indeed, the book of Judges “exhibits an enigmatic complexity,” (Exum 1990, 410). For example, the Jael story is presented twice but the prose and song versions do not line up exactly. This is confusing for some readers (Christianson 2007, 528-530). A second example is that although Jael is introduced “safely” and traditionally as “the wife of …” (4:17,) there is a hint of her independence through the explicit identification of the tent as Jael’s (4:17a), distinct from “the house of Heber” in 4:17b (Christianson 2007, 533). Even her name is disruptive in terms of gender norms, her name being the masculine third-person singular form (Christianson 2007, 534). And clearly her actions are a threat to the male: she “occupies a structurally anomalous position, taking on the roles and accompanying prestige that are usually reserved for the male, but still remains female,” (Christianson 2007, 534). This is very disruptive for the traditional reader. There are many other disturbing features in the Jael story, especially for the reader familiar with Hebrew and the Hebrew Bible. For example, “turn to me” (in 4:18) echoes the same words used in Gen. 19:2-3, which formed an invitation leading to disturbing violence. Similarly, “fled away on foot” (4:17) recalls other instances when people “fled away on foot” and were annihilated, e.g. Exod. 14:25, 27 (Christianson 2007, 538).

Regarding ambiguity, Levine (1985, 17) notes: “The toleration of ambiguity can be productive if it is taken … as an invitation to deal responsibly with issues of great complexity.” The Jael story does include complex issues, such as gender, violence, and justice (Christianson 2007, 543), which need to be addressed responsibly. Although many people have an aversion to ambiguity and would prefer to have such removed from the Bible, Firth (2008, cited by Christianson 2007, 543 n.29) notes that it is a sign of skillful writing which “invites readers to …play with the text.” More than this, ambiguity allows readers to learn to deal with disorientation. Perhaps that is why the storytellers in Judges introduced uncertainty into their characters’ actions, to help the (exilic) audience deal with the disorientating situation they faced (Christianson 2007, 544).

Roles played by women in the book of Judges

Women play important roles

In DH, women traditionally appear on the margins of narratives (in the roles of mother, wife, or daughter). However, in this book they play key roles because “the subject of the book is marginalization” (O’Connor 1986, 278). This theme of marginalization reflected the time of uncertainty and transition (between the Mosaic and Davidic leaderships). Boundaries were uncertain, both those pertaining to geographical borders, and to women’s roles in the public sphere (O’Connor 1986, 279). Regarding the latter, Jael (an unknown character, simply known as “the wife of Heber”) overshadows Deborah, the military leader (O’Connor 1986, 282). She is also contrasted with the mother of Sisera, supposedly a woman of rank (having “ladies-in-waiting” to assist her). Thus, not only do women play significant roles, but it is often the seemingly insignificant women who act in strategic ways. Further, Jael reverses the stereotype of a woman (generally seen as a “nurturer” rather than as a “seducer”). This unsettling ambiguity is highlighted by the poem “lingering over the violence” (Fewell and Gunn 1990, 405).

The reason Jael is “blessed” is because she participated in YHWH’s cause. However, a detailed study of the Hebrew text also indicates excessive use of sexual innuendo. For example, rhetorical features indicate that Sisera has “fallen” as a result of both the penetration of the tent-peg and his own lust (Reis, 42). For example, “he fell” and “he sank” are both repeated three times in 5:27, and the place of sinking/falling is “between her feet”. Also, many clues in the text (see Dickie 2020, 195-196) indicate that Jael’s use of her sexual weapon is part of the bigger picture of the story.

Violence associated with women in the book of Judges

Women in the book are both perpetrators and victims of violence (Hackett 2004, 356). As perpetrators, they often use unconventional instruments as weapons, such as the tent-peg of Jael and the millstone of the woman in Ch.9. (See Hackett 2004, 358.) Indeed, this suggests that the acts of violence were those of defense, simply using household items which were to hand, to protect themselves in the circumstance of terror. The violent acts by the women also often involve the violation of a confidence or trust (e.g. Jael, Delilah) and often “sleep” is part of the incident (e.g. Jael, Delilah) (O’Connor 1986, 289), suggesting the possible use of sexual tactics as well.

Through the book, violence intensifies in its intimacy. Initially, the violent episodes involve non-Israelites and impersonal nations. But from ch.3, violence is perpetrated against (foreign) individuals: Eglon (an enemy king) and then Sisera (an enemy military commander). This is followed by the death of Jephthah’s daughter (ch.11), an innocent young girl who is the granddaughter of a prostitute and thus supposedly “foreign”. Next comes the death of Samson, an Israelite, but who has taken a Philistine as his wife (16:2-3, 7-8). Finally, there is the horrific death of the Levite’s concubine, an Israelite, who is killed by Benjaminites (ch.19). Thus, there is a progression in the nature of the violence through the book, from nations to individuals, from persons in leadership (and thus responsible for enemy politics) to an innocent young woman, and from foreigners to inter-necine violence against one’s own kin.

This theoretical framework raises the question of the impact of repeated stories of violence on the body of a listener / reader. This is further discussed in the next section.

Danger for women “outside the house”

Danger for men appears to be “inside the house” whereas danger for women is “outside the house.” (See Bal 1988, 183). Three of the violent deaths (those of men) occur “inside the house”: Eglon in his inner chamber, Sisera inside a woman’s tent, and Samson inside his bedroom, which is contrary to expectation as men are expected to die on the battlefield. In contrast, Jephthah’s daughter (a virgin) and the Levite’s concubine both die once they step outside of the house. Danger lurks outside for women, regardless of their sexual purity. The boundary of their bodies is permeable, with something from outside proving traumatic. Thus, they must delve inside their bodies (their sexuality) to protect themselves from outside threats.

Women’s bodies as a symbol for the nation of Israel (Hackett 2004, 364)

This is particularly evident when the body of the Levite’s concubine is divided into twelve and sent to the twelve divided tribes (19:29-30). However, the virgin body of Jephthah’s daughter is also symbolical of intense longing for fulfilment, Israel longing for shalom-wholeness that was expected as part of the covenant (but withheld because of their disobedience, just as Jephthah’s daughter could not know the wholeness of womanhood because of her father’s folly).

Affect Theory

Violence and Affect Theory

It has been noted that violence is the typical means by which God orchestrates justice in the book of Judges (Christianson 2003, 71). But the constant portrayal of violence, of an intensifying nature, impacts readers even in their bodies, and influences the way they interpret the text. Amy Cottrill (2014) has used Affect Theory to interpret the impact on readers of the violence apparent in the Ehud story (ch.3) and the Jael story (chs.4-5) of Judges. She notes (p.430) that violent images “work on readers and create the emotional, physical, and sensory context in which later violent images will be received and interpreted.” As the reader is exposed to violations of the body suffered by victims in the book of Judges, he/she experiences vulnerability and fear, and the need for security. Of course, the initial purpose of raising anxiety in the first readers / hearers was so that they would long for relief in the figure of a king. Although we cannot know how ancient recipients of the text were persuaded in this direction through the physical discomfort provoked by the violent stories, the physical experiences of modern readers of Judges may give us some insight.

With regard to exposure to “overwhelming violence”, trauma theorists note that the body responds “in ways that cannot be limited to what is conscious,” (Cottrill 2014, 434-435). Indeed, neurobiological studies indicate that such levels of violence alter a person’s fundamental biology (Rambo 2010, 21). Abel (2007, 9) observes that even before one has cognitively understood a violent image, its intensity has generated a response in the body which creates an emotional context in which later violent images will be received. The reader of Judges 4-5 has already been exposed to the Ehud story with its graphic violence in sordid detail, and this has generated in him/her a “feeling of threat and anxiety about the safety of the body,” (Cottrill 2014, 438-441).

Thus, when the reader comes to the story of Jael in the next chapter, he/she already senses fear (in the body, and about the body) which influences his/her interpretation. Jael’s first words to Sisera are: “Come in … do not be afraid.” Her words identify the tension that is present, the sense that anything might happen (Reis 2005, 26-28), a vulnerability which was introduced in the Ehud story. Jael is most at risk (the sexual threat) but she also recognizes Sisera’s fear (Cottrill 2014, 444), which the reader knows is well founded. The narrator also describes vividly the murder instruments, the way the murder was committed (“[the pin] went into the ground”, 4:21), and the violation of Sisera’s body (5:18), which is “related with zeal,” (Cottrill 2014, 445).

Related to Affect Theory is the research emerging from a study of repeated exposure (experientially, rather than through literature) to violence. Hazler and Janson (2004) find that bystanders who witness repeated abuse inflicted on others may experience stress (psychological and physiological) that accumulates to equal that of the victim. This will be relevant when assessing the responses of the “Colored” women to the Jael story, coming as they do from repeated exposure to violence.

Legitimacy of violence in certain circumstances?

The rhetoric of spaghetti Westerns (from Italy) can help one examine whether violence (in particular, murder) is ever justified. For both audiences (that of Judges and of the spaghetti Western), as well as the “Colored” community, violence is embedded in their worldviews. Mitchell (2001, 188) claims that a central notion of the Western is that “violence is legitimate in certain circumstances, when all else fails.” There is a notion of “legitimated aggression” when the hero “reluctantly, but nobly, aids the cause of social order by acts of individual violence,” (Cawelti 1973, 84). In a later Western, Unforgiven, violence as justice is viciously deconstructed (Christianson 2003, 71). Indeed, this film undermines the view that “violence practiced by good guys” is qualitatively different from “violence practiced by bad guys”. It also critiques the notion that the community can host “limited” violence within it for the sake of maintaining “peace” (Koosed and Linafelt 1996, 172). These values, or their opposites, will be pertinent in the discussion of the Jael text by disadvantaged South Africans living in violent contexts.

Sociocultural context of the Jael story

The sociocultural context of the original audience must be considered in order to assess Jael’s action in the light of her times. Many of the violent incidents in the book of Judges are based on deception and subversive wit, the goal being to humiliate the enemy with “nothing out of bounds,” (Chapman 1967, 123). For the ancient audience, the mocking humor would have been well understood. But is it understood today? Frayling’s work (2000, x, xi) suggests that a rhetoric of action, violence, theatrics, and noise (as seen in “spaghetti Western movies”) is enjoyed as part of the rhythm of life, even though the audience may not be highly engaged with the content. He sees a parallel between the rhetoric in the book of Judges and that in Italian Westerns (Christianson 2003, 59-66). They share a common theme of “pitting human wit against a more powerful but less clever enemy” (although God’s over-riding control is recognized in the biblical text). The audience of the book of Judges is meant to laugh at the stupidity of the enemy (McKenzie 1967, 123). But will a lack of historical understanding impede contemporary readers/hearers gaining the message of the ancient text?

One further matter to consider (if we are trying to understand “the character of Jael”) is personal responsibility and morality in the ancient world. Aspects of modern identity (such as its strong focus on individualism) arise from the view that the “self” is located in one’s “inner depths” but for the ancient, identity was located in one’s social role (Di Vito 1999, 221, 232). According to Taylor (1989, 111), the OT notion of personhood differs from the modern idea in several ways: First, for the modern, human dignity lies in self-sufficiency achieved through disengagement from one’s social location whereas in the OT, a person is deeply embedded in her social identity. Second, the modern person has a strong sense of personal boundaries whereas the OT person does not. Third, modern society views a person as having “inner depths,” whereas the OT person is considered to be relatively transparent. And fourth, a modern person considers that her humanity depends upon a capacity for autonomous action, whereas the OT person’s humanity was linked to her obedience to (or dependence upon) another.

Further, in the OT, there is little attention given to a person’s “motivation” when assessing ethical behavior and the determination of guilt (Di Vito 1999, 233-235). As Di Vito (1999, 225) notes,

“In light of the individual’s embedding in the family, much of the language and conceptuality of contemporary moral discourse, with its insistence on self-responsibility, autonomy, and personal freedom, simply does not apply to the Israel depicted in the OT. ‘Personal morality’ apart from that bestowed by the social roles and practices of the group does not exist.”

Rather, in ancient Israel, the act was determinative, and only YHWH’s evaluation of one’s ethical standing had merit.

Conclusions

The main insight that emerges from a study of Judges 4-5 is that Jael was praised because of her participation in YHWH’s cause. As to her motive, none is explicitly mentioned, but the most feasible seems to be that she acted out of a need for self-preservation, using what was available to her (her sexuality and domestic instruments). No emotion is indicated for Jael, thus her murderous action appears “matter of fact”, necessary in the circumstances but not the result of intense hatred (nor fervent support, for YHWH or Israel).

The views of the “Colored” women were similar in most respects to this over-arching theme, that a woman does what she has to do, to protect herself (and her children). Although their initial response to Jael’s killing was that she was “bad”, they generally came to the view that there were extenuating circumstances, as there were in the murder committed by Ellen Pakkies. However, they were not comfortable with saying that murder is justifiable; even Ellen Pakkies commented that what she had done was wrong. Thus, the notion of different kinds of violence (that practiced by “good guys” and that practiced by “bad guys”) was not acceptable. From their perspective, one of endemic violence in which they live with a heightened sense of vulnerability for “safety of the body,” they felt that violence is always wrong, but there are circumstances in which it can be understood. Indeed, their experience made them able to empathize with a woman who, being the victim of prolonged violence, herself became a perpetrator. Their empathy with Ellen Pakkies even led them to supporting her with their meagre finances, and she became a hero, one who was prepared to act against continual abuse, and to face the consequences.

It could be that the Jael story also gave a sense of empowerment to the “Colored” women, hearing of a woman who kills her potential attacker. (See Cottrill, 446.) Words are said to have the power “to freshen and redeem” (Kowalewski 1993, 11). Sakenfeld (1989, 19-20) gives an example of how the story of Jael has empowered Korean women to stand up against rapists, seeing Sisera as a powerful sexual-violator who was subdued by Jael. The modern female reader of Judges may not live with a constant sense of vulnerability, but (as indicated by Affect Theory), her body begins to react to the repeated accounts of the insecurity of the female body. This is highlighted by the fact that although Jael is victorious (5:27), the very next verses (giving the words of Sisera’s mother, 5:28, 30) emphasize again the general vulnerability of the female body. Thus, she experiences from literature what the “Colored” women experience from life. Both groups of women come to the same conclusion: that women have to be prepared to commit acts of violence to prevent themselves being violently treated.

However, although gender is given some prominence in the Jael story (with Deborah’s prophecy that the glory would go to a woman, and the mention of Sisera’s mother discussing the rape of enemy women), there does seem to a lack of focus on Jael’s gender. Fewell and Gunn (1990, 400) note: “It is as though gender is of no concern.” Even when the song mentions specific characters, poetic parallelism balances the male with a female. And there is no mocking in the song, of a woman stealing Barak’s glory. The important matter is that someone was ready to fulfil the purpose of YHWH. Thus, the interpretations giving focus to Jael using her sexuality to trap Sisera (as noted by the “Colored” women but less so by the Caucasian women), and her victory over a potential rapist, are probably the result of the readers / hearers finding parallels in their situations. For vulnerable women, the story is all about sex, and a woman outwitting a man. For those in less threatening situations, the story is about someone prepared to fulfil God’s purpose, albeit unwittingly.

Perhaps the “Colored” women’s view is not the main point of the original text, but it certainly was part of the narrator’s strategy, as the many sexual innuendos reveal. Thus, the story succeeds in meeting readers and hearers in their own situations, and giving to them thought-provoking scenarios to challenge their thinking. Is domestic violence ever “right”? Is a woman’s body a weapon or a weakness? Why did God choose Jael? These and many other questions are presented to us in this absorbing text. Women scholars have discovered helpful insights and “Colored” women, from their perspective similar in many ways to that of Jael, find the text empowering.