Virtual reality (VR) offers immersive, interactive environments for experience-based learning, yet its role in public administration (PA) education is understudied. We analysed data from a project that developed and tested three VR scenarios with students in information technology, PA, and media informatics. Overall, VR was rated more positively than a text-based e-learning module, largely because it strengthened learners’ focus and satisfaction. PA students reported lower prior digital experience and weaker initial interest, and VR did not consistently increase topic interest among initially disengaged learners. Voluntary uptake of VR stations and apps also remained low. The findings suggest that VR for PA requires practice-relevant instructional design, improved accessibility (including home-compatible options), and tighter curricular integration. Future research should assess long-term learning effects and strategies to foster sustained adoption.
Al-AnsiAMJaboobMGaradA, et al. (2023) Analyzing augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) recent development in education. Social Sciences & Humanities Open8(1): 100532. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2023.100532
2.
AlshowairABailJAlSuwailemF, et al. (2024) Use of virtual reality exercises in disaster preparedness training: a scoping review. SAGE Open Medicine12: 20503121241241936. https://doi.org/10.1177/20503121241241936
3.
BaldaufMZimmermannH-DBaer-BaldaufP, et al. (2023) Virtual reality for smart government – requirements, opportunities, and challenges. In: NahFSiauK (eds), pp. 3–13. HCI in Business, Government and Organizations: 10th International Conference, HCIBGO 2023, Held as Part of the 25th HCI International Conference, HCII 2023, Copenhagen, Denmark, July 23–28, 2023, Proceedings, Part I. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland; Imprint Springer.
4.
BermejoBJuizCCortesD, et al. (2023) AR/VR teaching-learning experiences in Higher Education Institutions (HEI): a systematic literature review. Informatics10(2): 45. https://doi.org/10.3390/informatics10020045
5.
BusettiSUggeriM (2025) Teaching policymaking with games. Introduction to the special issue. Teaching Public Administration43(3): 281–293. https://doi.org/10.1177/01447394251386750
6.
ChangEKimHTYooB (2020) Virtual reality sickness: a review of causes and measurements. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction36(17): 1658–1682. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2020.1778351
7.
CostelloR (2020) VR in higher education. In: TomeiLCostelloR (eds) Gamification Strategies for Retention, Motivation, and Engagement in Higher Education. IGI Global, pp. 116–144.
8.
DelgadoPVargasCAckermanR, et al. (2018) Don’t throw away your printed books: a meta-analysis on the effects of reading media on reading comprehension. Educational Research Review25: 23–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2018.09.003
9.
DingXLiZ (2022) A review of the application of virtual reality technology in higher education based on Web of Science literature data as an example. Frontiers in Education7: 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2022.1048816
10.
FernandezM (2017) Augmented-Virtual Reality: how to improve education systems. Higher Learning Research Communications7(1): 1–15.
11.
HairJFJSargstedMRingleCM, et al. (2018) Advanced Issues in Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling. Sage Publications, Inc.
12.
Hernandez-de-MenendezMEscobar DíazCMorales-MenendezR (2020) Technologies for the future of learning: state of the art. International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing14(2): 683–695. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12008-019-00640-0
KuoY-CWalkerAESchroderKE, et al. (2014) Interaction, internet self-efficacy, and self-regulated learning as predictors of student satisfaction in online education courses. The Internet and Higher Education20: 35–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2013.10.001
15.
LemesHCJAmaralLA (2020) Immersion for mobilization: use of 360-degree videos and virtual reality in public administration. International Journal of Management, Innovation & Entrepreneurial Research6(1): 32–38. https://doi.org/10.18510/ijmier.2020.615
16.
LowellVLIlobinsoAC (2024) Virtual reality in online higher education for learner engagement, interaction, and experiential learning. In: Wa-MbalekaSThompsonKCasimiroL (eds) The Sage Handbook of Online Higher Education: 1 Oliver’s Yard, 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP. Sage Publications Ltd, pp. 458–474.
17.
MakranskyGPetersenGB (2021) The cognitive affective model of immersive learning (CAMIL): a theoretical research-based model of learning in immersive virtual reality. Educational Psychology Review33(3): 937–958. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-020-09586-2
18.
MarksBThomasJ (2022) Adoption of virtual reality technology in higher education: an evaluation of five teaching semesters in a purpose-designed laboratory. Education and Information Technologies27(1): 1287–1305. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10653-6
19.
MilgramPKishinoF (1994) A taxonomy of mixed reality visual displays. IEICE Trans. Information SystemsE77-D(12): 1321–1329.
20.
Pérez-DuránIAcebillo-BaquéMComellas-BonsfillsJM (2025) Teaching social inclusion, public policy and governance through active learning and educational games. Teaching Public Administration43(3): 294–310. https://doi.org/10.1177/01447394241307506
RauschnabelPAFelixRHinschC, et al. (2022) What is XR? Towards a framework for augmented and virtual reality. Computers in Human Behavior133: 107289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107289
24.
ReichardCSchröterE (2018) Education and training in public administration and management in Europe. In: OngaroEvan ThielS (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Public Administration and Management in Europe. Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 41–60.
25.
ReichardCKüchler-StahnNSiegelJ (2023) Education in public sector accounting at higher education institutions in Germany. Public Money & Management43(7): 741–749. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540962.2023.2238913
SadekOBaldwinFGrayR, et al. (2023) Impact of virtual and augmented reality on quality of medical education during the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review. Journal of Graduate Medical Education15(3): 328–338. https://doi.org/10.4300/JGME-D-22-00594.1
28.
SalnykIGrinLYefimovD, et al. (2023) The future of higher education: implementation of virtual and augmented reality in the educational process. Futurity Education3(3): 45–61.
29.
SchefoldD (2012) Local government in Germany. In: Moreno MolinaAM (ed) Local Government in the Member States of the European Union: A Comparative Legal Perspective. Instituto Nacional de Administración Pública, pp. 233–256.
30.
SiegelJProellerI (2021) Human resource management in German public administration. In: KuhlmannSProellerISchimankeD, et al. (eds) Public Administration in Germany. Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 375–391.
31.
SlavovaYMuM (2018) A comparative study of the learning outcomes and experience of VR in education. In: 2018 IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces (VR), Reutlingen, 18–22 March 2018. IEEE, pp. 685–686.
32.
StakeRE (2008) Multiple Case Study Analysis. The Guilford Press.
TózsaI (2013) Virtual reality and public administration. Transylvanian Review of Administrative Sciences9(38 E): 202–212.
35.
van LeeuwenJQuanjerAJJylhäA, et al(2018) Using virtual reality to increase civic participation in designing public spaces. In: Bouzas-LorenzoRCernadas RamosA (eds) Proceedings of the 18th European Conference on Digital Government, ECDG 2018: Hosted byUniversity of Santiago de Compostela Spain, 25–26 October 2018. Academic Conferences and Publishing International. 230‐239 or enhancing citizen.
36.
VatsSJoshiR (2024) The impact of virtual reality in education: a comprehensive research study. In: SharmaSKDwivediYKMetriB, et al. (eds) Transfer, Diffusion and Adoption of Next-Generation Digital Technologies. Springer Nature Switzerland, pp. 126–136.
37.
WangY-S (2003) Assessment of learner satisfaction with asynchronous electronic learning systems. Information & Management41(1): 75–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-7206(03)00028-4
38.
WeissJ (2024) Is bureaucracy ironclad after all? Prevalence and variances of performance- and strategy-oriented management in German local governments. International Review of Administrative Sciences91(2): 293–309. https://doi.org/10.1177/00208523241268140
