Implications of biogas adoption on Africa's SDGs: A systematic review

Abstract

Biogas supports sustainable energy transitions in rural Africa while advancing climate action, gender equality, and ecosystem conservation. However, evidence of its multidimensional impacts remains fragmented. This systematic review synthesizes 73 studies published between 2015 and 2025 to examine how biogas adoption contributes to SDG 7 (clean energy), SDG 5 (gender equality), SDG 13 (climate action), and SDG 15 (ecosystem protection), while highlighting adoption drivers, regional variations, and research gaps. Relevant literature was identified through Boolean searches in Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and institutional sources, and screened following a PRISMA-guided approach. Data were thematically analyzed, coding outcomes by SDGs, adoption determinants, and regional contexts. Findings show that biogas improves household energy access, reduces women's labor and health burdens, lowers greenhouse gas emissions, and mitigates deforestation while supporting biodiversity. Strong synergies across SDGs indicate that biogas functions as an integrated development solution rather than a single-sector technology. Yet adoption remains uneven due to high upfront costs, limited finance, weak institutional support, and socio-cultural barriers. This review provides combined evidence of biogas's systemic role in advancing multiple SDGs in Africa and underscores the need for context-specific policies, inclusive financing, and longitudinal, multidimensional research to enable sustainable scale-up.

Keywords

Biogas adoption impact SDGs energy access Africa

Introduction

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Goals (17 SDGs) provides a global roadmap for achieving a more equitable and resilient future (Hák et al., 2016). In Africa, the success of these goals is fraught with interconnected challenges such as poverty, energy poverty, environmental degradation, and gender inequality that create a self-reinforcing cycle of vulnerability (Ajulor, 2018; Kedir et al., 2017; Mahlatsi, 2021). This reality demands integrated strategies that can concurrently advance multiple SDGs, thereby maximizing impact, optimizing resource use, and accelerating overall development (Ikram and Boudraa, 2025; Oppong, 2025; Soori et al., 2025).

In recent decades, there has been a global call for increased renewable energy consumption to promote environmental sustainability and social equity (Chandratreya, 2025; Eyuboglu and Uzar, 2025; Ndubuisi and FNisafetyE, 2025; Radulescu et al., 2025). Particularly, biogas emerges as a transformative solution that can concurrently advance multiple SDGs (Ariyanto and Soedarto, 2025; Biro et al., 2025; Matambo and Rashama, 2025; Pilarski et al., 2025). Moreover, it alleviates the pressures of collecting fuel wood, thus improving the overall well-being of women and girls (SDG 5) (Tereka et al., 2025). In environmental terms, biogas energy decreases the need for fuel wood, minimizes deforestation and habitat destruction, and promotes ecosystem sustainability, which makes up SDG 13 and SDG 15 (Jima et al., 2025; Yin et al., 2025).

Despite being endowed with abundant natural resources and an active labor force, Africa remains highly vulnerable to climate change, poor energy access, and gender inequality (Ajulor, 2018; Mahlatsi, 2021). In Sub-Saharan Africa, more than 600 million people lack access to electricity, and nearly 900 million rely on traditional biomass (firewood and charcoal) for cooking (IEA, 2020; Soori et al., 2025). This high reliance on traditional biomass exacerbates deforestation and biodiversity loss, contrary to SDG 15 (Life on Land). Because fuelwood is primarily collected by women and girls, this role restricts their education and economic opportunities, reinforcing gender inequality under SDG 5. Furthermore, high dependence on fossil fuels and traditional biomass accelerates greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, impeding climate action toward SDG 13 (Pramanik et al., 2023; Raman et al., 2025; Thapa et al., 2023).

Biogas is a viable, eco-friendly solution for Africa because these systems are simple to construct, scalable, and cost-effective for both urban and remote rural areas. This is particularly relevant in the African context, where dispersed population settlements drive up the costs of conventional electricity distribution. Additionally, while fossil fuel resources are heavily concentrated in a few nations Nigeria, Angola, and South Africa hold the vast majority of the region's oil, gas, and coal (Karekezi, 2002), biomass resources are widely available across the continent. This availability reduces the risk of energy monopolies and strengthens the case for decentralized biogas technologies.

Despite the significant potential of biogas systems, empirical evidence on their synergistic role in advancing Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 5, 7, 13, and 15 in Africa remains fragmented (Amisale and Yishak, 2019; Balgah, 2016; Chiumia et al., 2025; Gbolonyo et al., 2025; Kefalew and Lami, 2021; Kimori et al., 2023; Makumbi et al., 2025; Mengistu et al., 2016; Rasimphi et al., 2025; Tajebe, 2016; Tarimo et al., 2024). Existing studies predominantly examine biogas through single-dimensional lenses, focusing on technical energy output (Amisale and Yishak, 2019; Kimori et al., 2023; Makumbi et al., 2025), GHG reduction (Kefalew and Lami, 2021; Mengistu et al., 2016; Tajebe, 2016), or women's empowerment in isolation (Gbolonyo et al., 2025). To address this gap, this systematic review synthesizes evidence on small-scale biogas systems in rural African households to articulate the synergistic linkages between biogas adoption and the concurrent advancement of Gender Equality (SDG 5), Clean Energy (SDG 7), Climate Action (SDG 13), and Life on Land (SDG 15).

This systematic review advances existing literature by applying an explicit multi-SDG synergy framework to the analysis of small-scale, rural household biogas adoption in Africa. Moving beyond fragmented assessments, it synthesizes empirical evidence across SDG 5, SDG 7, SDG 13, and SDG 15 to examine biogas as an integrated development intervention rather than a single-sector technology. By consolidating findings from diverse African contexts, the review identifies the economic, cultural, technical, and policy determinants shaping adoption and outcomes, highlights interdependencies, co-benefits, and trade-offs across sectors, and positions household-scale biogas as a strategic leverage point for advancing multiple SDGs while identifying critical evidence gaps to inform future research, policy design, and development practice. Accordingly, this review is guided by the following research questions:

What contextual factors (economic, cultural, technical, policy) facilitate or hinder adoption across different African regions?

To what extent do small-scale biogas systems improve access to clean and affordable energy (SDG 7)?

How does biogas adoption alleviate the work burden and health risks for women and girls (SDG 5)?

What is the impact of biogas systems on reducing GHG emissions (SDG 13)?

How does biogas use influence deforestation rates and biodiversity protection (SDG 15)?

What are the synergistic interactions between these four SDGs when biogas is introduced as an integrated solution?

Methodology

Literature Search Mechanism

This systematic review employed a structured and transparent search strategy to assess the drivers of small-scale biogas adoption and examine its multidimensional impacts on SDGs 5, 7, 13, and 15 in Africa. The review followed PRISMA 2020 guidelines to ensure methodological rigor and reproducibility.

A comprehensive literature search was conducted across four major bibliographic databases: Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and PubMed. PubMed was included to capture health-related evidence, particularly studies addressing indoor air pollution, respiratory health, and other public health outcomes associated with biogas adoption. In addition, relevant grey literature was identified through targeted searches of institutional websites (international organizations, governmental agencies, and development partners) and by screening reference lists of key studies.

The search strategy was developed iteratively in alignment with the review's research questions. Boolean operators (AND, OR), truncation, and phrase searching were used to combine keywords related to biogas technology, adoption drivers, and SDG-related outcomes. Searches in Scopus and Web of Science were limited to titles, abstracts, and keywords, while PubMed searches were conducted using title/abstract fields and Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) where applicable. Google Scholar searches were performed using keyword combinations across full-text due to platform limitations. Only studies published in English were included.

The exact search strings used for each database are provided in Supplemental Table S1. Representative examples include:

(“biogas” OR “household biogas” OR “small-scale biogas” OR “anaerobic digestion”) AND (“clean energy” OR “energy access” OR “renewable energy”) AND (“Africa” OR “Sub-Saharan Africa”)

(“biogas” OR “clean cooking” OR “renewable household energy”) AND (“gender equality” OR “women empowerment” OR “time poverty” OR “labor burden” OR “indoor air pollution”) AND (“Africa”)

(“biogas systems” OR “anaerobic digestion”) AND (“greenhouse gas emissions” OR “GHG reduction” OR “methane capture” OR “climate change mitigation”) AND (“Africa”)

(“biogas” OR “alternative cooking fuel”) AND (“deforestation” OR “fuelwood reduction” OR “biodiversity conservation” OR “ecosystem protection”) AND (“Africa”)

The search covered studies published between January 2015 and August 2025, corresponding to the post-adoption period of the SDGs. The initial search was conducted in September 2025, and an updated search was completed in November 2025 to include recently published studies.

Database-specific filters were applied where available, including document type (peer-reviewed articles, reviews, and conference papers) and subject area relevance. Duplicate records were identified and removed prior to screening.

Literature inclusion and exclusion criteria

To ensure consistency and reproducibility, explicit inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied during the screening process:

Publication date: Only studies published between January 2015 and August 2025 were included. Studies published before 2015 were excluded.

Study area: Only studies conducted in African countries were included. Multi-country studies were included only if African-specific results were reported; otherwise, they were excluded.

Publication language: Only English-language publications were considered.

Thematic scope: Studies were included if they explicitly examined household or small-scale biogas systems. Studies focusing on general bioenergy or renewable energy were excluded unless they provided specific, disaggregated findings on biogas.

SDG relevance: Studies were included if they addressed at least one of the targeted SDGs (5, 7, 13, or 15). Studies covering multiple SDGs were retained, while those with only indirect or vague relevance were excluded.

Data availability: Only full-text peer-reviewed articles and credible institutional reports were included; abstracts, editorials, and non-accessible texts were excluded.

These criteria were applied consistently during title/abstract and full-text screening to ensure transparent and reproducible study selection.

Screening studies

This study follows PRISMA guidelines, and a multi-stage screening process was used to identify eligible studies (see Figure 1). All records were screened in two steps: first by reviewing titles, keywords, and abstracts, followed by a full-text evaluation. Two reviewers independently conducted the screening, and discrepancies were resolved through consensus to minimize subjectivity and research bias.

Figure 1.

PRISMA 2020 flow diagram for systematic screening and inclusion process.

Data extraction and variables

A structured data-extraction form was used to capture study characteristics, including author(s), year, location, sample size, analytical methods, and key findings. All extracted data were reviewed collaboratively to ensure accuracy.

Thematic synthesis and analytical framework

The review adopted a thematic synthesis approach to integrate findings. Data were coded based on the SDGs framework and the study's research questions. The analytical framework comprised six core thematic domains:

Drivers of small-scale biogas adoption.

Clean and affordable energy access (SDG 7).

Gender equality and empowerment (SDG 5).

Climate change mitigation (SDG 13).

Life on land and ecosystem protection (SDG 15).

Synergies and trade-offs among these SDGs.

Regional differentiation (East, West, Southern, North, and Central Africa) was incorporated to capture contextual variations, common patterns, and existing knowledge gaps across African regions.

Result

The results of this review present synthesized findings from 73 studies (including both research articles and grey literature). The review presents the results by considering logical flow, including the study selection procedure; the spatial and temporal distribution of the studies; methodological quality and evidence appraisal; trends in converting domestic waste to energy; the drivers of small-scale biogas technology adoption; and a thematic synthesis of its implications for achieving multiple SDGs in Africa.

Study selection

As shown in Figure 1, the PRISMA 2020 flow diagram describes the methodical literature selection procedure. A total of 410 records were found: 124 from Web of Science, Scopus, and PubMed, 182 from Google Scholar, and 104 from grey literature sources, such as UNDP, UNEP, UN Women, FAO, the African Development Bank, and the IEA. Overall, the review totally searched 104 working papers, technical reports, and project documents and 306 journal research articles. After removing 227 duplicates, 183 records remained for screening. Based on region and publication year, 62 were excluded, leaving 121 sources. During the inclusion stage, a further 48 records were removed following title, abstract, and keyword review. Ultimately, 73 studies were retained for full-text analysis.

Temporal distribution of included studies

The result in Figure 2 displays the temporal distribution of research published from 2015 to 2025. The findings indicate a distinct rising trend in publications, which is indicative of growing scholarly interest in the factors influencing the adoption of biogas and its multifaceted contributions to several SDGs. Although there were comparatively few studies conducted between 2015 and 2017, the number of publications started to increase in 2016. The production varied little between 2018 and 2023, averaging four to seven studies annually. Significant growth was seen in 2024, reaching a peak of 16 articles in 2025, suggesting heightened research activity in the preceding years.

Figure 2.

Temporal distribution of included studies (2015–2025).

Geographical distribution of included studies

The result in Figure 3 shows a clear regional imbalance in the 73 reviewed studies, with East Africa dominating the literature (n = 52), reflecting stronger research activity and policy support for biogas in response to climate and gender challenges. In contrast, Southern Africa (n = 9), West Africa (n = 6), North Africa (n = 4), and Central Africa (n = 2) remain significantly underrepresented, suggesting limited research engagement or data constraints. This uneven distribution highlights the need for broader geographic evidence to better assess biogas contributions to SDG 5, SDG 7, SDG 13, and SDG 15 across Africa.

Figure 3.

Geographical distribution of included studies (across African regions).

Methodological quality and evidence appraisal

The methodological quality of included studies was assessed using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT, 2018 version). Each study was first screened using the two MMAT screening questions, followed by appraisal using the relevant criteria based on study design (qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods). Each study was evaluated across five methodological domains, including appropriateness of design, data collection, analysis, and interpretation. Studies were not excluded based on quality appraisal; however, MMAT ratings were used to assess the robustness of evidence and to guide interpretation during synthesis. Based on MMAT criteria, studies were categorized into three quality levels: high (meeting 4–5 criteria), moderate (2–3 criteria), and low (0–1 criteria). Overall, the majority of studies were of moderate to high quality, with a smaller proportion exhibiting methodological limitations.

As shown in Table 1, descriptive studies (53.4%) provided moderate inferential evidence on household characteristics and adoption patterns, while econometric studies (39.7%) demonstrated stronger methodological rigor and inferential capacity. Qualitative studies (8.2%) offered valuable contextual insights but varied in methodological depth. Greater weight was given to findings from studies meeting higher MMAT criteria, particularly in drawing conclusions related to causal relationships and multi-SDG impacts. The full MMAT assessment results, including study-level scoring across all criteria, are presented in Supplemental Table S2.

Table 1.

Summary of methodological rigor that shows the quality of included studies.

Dominant analytical approach	No. of studies	Percent (%)	Primary evidentiary contribution	Strength of evidence for review objectives
Econometric analysis (regression models)	29	39.7	Enables identification of associations, determinants, and potential causal pathways between biogas adoption and outcomes related to SDGs 5, 7, 13, and 15 through statistically rigorous inference.	Strong inferential evidence
Descriptive quantitative analysis	39	53.4	Provides robust baseline information on household characteristics, adoption patterns, energy use, and contextual trends relevant to biogas systems and SDG outcomes.	Moderate inferential evidence
Qualitative analysis	6	8.2	Offers in-depth contextual, institutional, and socio-cultural insights into adoption processes, perceptions, and lived experiences that shape biogas use and impacts.	Contextual and explanatory evidence

Thematic categorization of evidence

As shown in Table 2, the 73 studies included in the review were thematically categorized into six overarching domains reflecting the implications of biogas adoption: (i) contextual factors influencing adoption and sustainability; (ii) clean energy access and rural household welfare (SDG 7); (iii) gender equality and social outcomes (SDG 5); (iv) climate action and GHG emissions (SDG 13); (v) environmental sustainability and ecosystem protection (SDG 15); and (vi) synergies among SDGs 5, 7, 13, and 15. This thematic structure enabled a systematic synthesis of evidence across social, environmental, and policy dimensions of biogas deployment in Africa.

Table 2.

Thematic categorization of included studies based on research questions (RQ) and SDGs.

Thematic categories	Focus area	Related research questions	Number of included studies
Theme (i)	Adoption and sustainability drivers	RQ1	26
Theme (ii)	Access to clean energy and affordability (SDG 7)	RQ2	12
Theme (iii)	Gender equality and social outcomes (SDG 5)	RQ3	8
Theme (iv)	Climate (reducing GHG emissions) (SDG 13)	RQ4	11
Theme (v)	Conserve life on land (Environmental sustainability) (SDG 15)	RQ5	10
Theme (vi)	SDG Integrations and co-benefits	RQ6	6

However, the distribution of studies across these themes reveals substantial variation in the depth and robustness of the evidence base. Evidence related to adoption and sustainability drivers is the most extensive (n = 26) and relatively well-established, with consistent identification of key determinants across multiple contexts. In contrast, themes such as clean energy access (n = 12) and climate-related outcomes (n = 11) are supported by a moderate number of studies, though findings remain somewhat context-dependent.

Evidence on gender equality and social outcomes (n = 8) and environmental sustainability (n = 10) is comparatively more limited and exhibits greater variability in methodological approaches and reported impacts. Notably, the evidence base for SDG synergies and co-benefits remains emergent and comparatively underdeveloped (n = 6), with relatively few studies explicitly examining cross-sectoral interactions. These differences highlight the importance of distinguishing between well-supported conclusions and more tentative inferences, particularly when interpreting the broader implications of biogas adoption for sustainable development outcomes.

Adoption status of biogas technology across African countries

Table 3 revealed that household biogas installations in Africa increased from 77,000 in 2018 to 103,000 by 2021. Ethiopia (34,700) and Kenya (26,800) account for the largest shares, highlighting steady but uneven distribution across African countries (SNV Netherlands Development Organisation, 2018, 2022).

Table 3.

Adoption status of biogas technology across African countries.

Country	Biogas digesters installed up to 2018	Digesters installed in 2020	Digesters installed in 2021	Total installed up to 2021
Benin	132	0	42	249
Burkina Faso	11,986	735	804	15,019
Ethiopia	22,574	4686	3241	34,693
Kenya	20,699	1962	2333	26,768
Rwanda	10,009	200	190	11,625
Uganda	8235	300	420	9019
Zambia	3394	380	323	5671
Total	77,029	8263	7353	103,044

Source: SNV Netherlands Development Organisation, 2018, 2022.

Socioeconomic, governmental, and technical factors determining small-scale biogas technology adoption in Africa

As presented in Table 4, the results of this systematic review identified six comprehensive factors as major determinants of small-scale biogas adoption in Africa. These factors comprise: socioeconomic factors (13 studies) such as household income and wealth consistently promote adoption, while financial factors (12 studies) like access to credit, subsidies, and loans facilitate uptake, with high costs or low willingness to pay acting as barriers. Technical and institutional conditions (11 studies) show mixed effects: training, extension services, and sufficient livestock support adoption, whereas poor infrastructure and resource access limit it. Demographic factors (9 studies) reveal higher education and male-headed households as positive, older age often negative, and female-headed households face gendered barriers. Awareness (7 studies) strongly enhances adoption, while cultural and social factors (5 studies), including community attitudes and gender inequalities, mostly hinder it. Overall, adoption depends on the interplay of economic capacity, financial support, technical access, knowledge, and socio-cultural context, highlighting the need for integrated strategies across African households.

Table 4.

The summary of key drivers of small-scale biogas technology adoption across African countries.

Major drivers of biogas adoption in Africa	Key determinants	Effect on adoption	Freq. of studies	Percentage (%)
Socio-economic	Household income, occupation, household expenditure, livelihood, wealth status	Mostly Positive (higher income, occupation stability, and wealth increase adoption)	13	43.3
Financial	Access to credit, subsidies, loans, affordability, willingness to pay, high installation cost	Mostly Positive/Negative (access to credit/subsidies positive; high installation cost/low willingness to pay negative)	12	40
Institutional/Technical	Access to technical support, extension services, training, availability of feedstock, electricity access, distance to fuelwood/water/market, livestock/cattle size	Mixed (access to support, training, livestock size positive; distance to resources and market has negative influence)	11	36.7
Demographic	Age, gender, family/household size, education level, female/male household head	Positive/Negative (higher education, male-headed households often positive; older age sometimes negative; female-headed sometimes mixed)	9	30
Awareness/Knowledge	Awareness of biogas benefits, information sources (seminars, neighbors, media)	Positive (better awareness consistently increases adoption)	7	23.3
Cultural/Social	Community attitudes, cultural perceptions, gender disparities in adoption roles	Mostly Negative (negative attitudes, cultural barriers, gender inequality reduce adoption)	5	16.7

Biogas adoption and integrated progress toward clean energy, gender equality, climate action, and environmental goals in Africa

As shown in Table 5, the reviewed evidence demonstrates that small-scale biogas adoption contributes simultaneously to multiple SDGs. Across the literature, it is associated with improved access to clean energy (SDG 7), women's empowerment through reduced labor burdens (SDG 5), climate change mitigation via reduced GHG emissions (SDG 13), and environmental benefits such as reduced deforestation and improved soil fertility (SDG 15). This implies that biogas emerges as an integrated intervention linking energy access, gender equality, climate action, and environmental sustainability in African contexts.

Table 5.

Summary of evidence on the implication of biogas technology on SDG5, SDG7, SDG13, and SDG 15 in Africa.

SDGs	Research questions (RQ)	Theme/focus	Key findings	No. of studies
SDG 7	What is the role of biogas in improving access to clean and affordable energy in Africa?	Biogas adoption, energy access, environmental and health benefits, and socio-economic impacts.	Biogas reduces household energy costs, substitutes firewood and kerosene, lowers indoor air pollution and emissions, improves income livelihoods, and enhances rural energy security.	12
(SDG 5)	What is the role of biogas in improving women empowerment (reducing workload, time saving, and reducing indoor air pollution) in Africa?	Women's empowerment, workload reduction, time saving, health improvement, income generation, and decision-making.	Biogas adoption empowers women by reducing cooking time and fuel collection, decreasing exposure to indoor air pollution, lowering health risks, and cutting household energy costs. It also frees time for income-generating activities, education, and community participation, strengthens decision-making power, enhances skills, promotes gender equality, and supports sustainable practices.	8
SDG 13)?	What is the role of biogas in reducing GHG emissions and promoting climate action in African communities (SDG 13)?	Biogas adoption, GHG emission reduction, renewable energy promotion, fuelwood saving, and forest conservation.	Biogas adoption substantially reduces household and community GHG emissions (e.g. 58–6024 kg CO₂e per household/year), substitutes chemical fertilizers, and contributes to sustainable energy transitions.	13
SDG 15	What is the role of biogas in forest conservation, sustainable land management, and biodiversity management in Africa (SDG 15)?	Biogas adoption, forest conservation, fuelwood saving, carbon emission reduction, sustainable land management, and biodiversity preservation.	Biogas adoption reduces fuelwood consumption, conserves forests and key tree species, and improves sustainable land and soil management through bio-slurry use. It supports biodiversity conservation, enhances livelihoods, and mitigates deforestation and land degradation.	10

Discussion

Domestic waste-to-energy conversion in Africa: trends and perspectives

Evidence shows that the release of domestic and industrial waste was the cause to decline ecological balance of the planet (Dutta et al., 2025; Habibu et al., 2025; Saxena, 2025; Sharma et al., 2025). In response to this crisis, countries re-utilized their domestic waste by recycling it using different techniques to generate electricity using bio-energy, value-added products, and valuable chemicals (Priya et al., 2025; Shah et al., 2025). There is considerable progress in the transformation of pollutants into green energy, biofuel, building bricks, and utilization as input for industries (Fiksel and Lal, 2018; Kavya et al., 2024; Khan et al., 2025). This transformative performance encourages a circular economy as a sustainable development program (Kalkanis et al., 2022; Rana et al., 2020; Smol et al., 2020).

Globally, Northern and Southern Europe leads the world's top experience in recycling municipal waste approximately 44% and 42% of their municipal solid waste, respectively (United Nations Environment Programme, 2024). The lowest waste recycling rate is observed in Sub-Saharan Africa (Maalouf and Mavropoulos, 2022). Biogas is climate-smart renewable energy produced when microorganisms break down organic materials like food waste or manure without oxygen, through anaerobic digestion (Alengebawy et al., 2024; Mertins and Wawer, 2022).

In Africa, small-scale biogas is a key component of sustainable energy strategies (Surroop et al., 2019). The Africa Biogas Partnership Programme, launched in 2009, reached over 27,000 households in Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda (Clemens et al., 2018), and the continent could sustainably produce 50–100 Mtoe of low-carbon biogas by 2040 at USD 15/MBtu (IEA, 2020). In Ghana, about 2000 rural biogas plants convert agricultural and municipal waste into energy and bio-fertilizer (Ghana News Agency, 2022; World Biogas Association, 2020). In Ethiopia, where 78% of rural energy relies on scarce firewood, the National Biogas Program installed 8063 digesters by 2013, supplying clean energy and nutrient-rich slurry for agriculture (Abate and Leta, 2023; Amare, 2015; Mengistu et al., 2015; Roopnarain and Adeleke, 2017). Kenya, South Africa, and Rwanda also demonstrate growing adoption, though uptake is limited by technical, financial, and institutional barriers, with benefits including reduced firewood use, methane capture, and improved sanitation (Abate and Leta, 2023; Burger, 2022; Ogwang, 2020; Shryock, 2012).

Regional heterogeneity and common determinants of small-scale biogas technology adoption in rural Africa

The thematic synthesis of the review confirms the reality of both regional heterogeneity and commonalities in the determinants influencing biogas adoption across African countries. However, it is important to note that the evidence base is heavily skewed toward East Africa, and therefore the patterns identified may be disproportionately influenced by this region. As the results from 30 included studies indicate, despite socio-economic, technological, institutional, socio-cultural, and environmental factors playing a decisive role across the continent, the relative importance of these determinants varies significantly by region (Figure 4).

Figure 4.

Regional heterogeneity and commonality on determinants of small-scale biogas adoption in Africa.

East Africa (Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda)

The systematic review points out that the majority of the included studies are drawn from East Africa; therefore, the findings for this region are supported by comparatively stronger empirical evidence than those for other regions. In this region, the adoption of small-scale biogas technology is predominantly determined by household socio-economic characteristics, particularly education, household income, and household size. The synthesized result from several studies shows that education consistently appears as a strong determinant of biogas technology in rural Africa (Adane et al., 2023; Dawite et al., 2025; Geddafa et al., 2021; Kelebe et al., 2017; Mingate and Ikonya, 2023; Momanyi and Benards, 2016). This result illustrates that the majority of rural households are illiterate across East African regions, hence creating awareness and understanding of biogas technology are crucial step for adoption of biogas technology. The review also recognized that provision of technical support and credit facilities significantly influences adoption of biogas (Geddafa et al., 2021; Momanyi and Benards, 2016; Shallo and Sime, 2019). Factors such as distance to water sources and high installation costs were commonly reported barriers that restrict the adoption even in regions with favorable socio-economic conditions. Moreover, livestock ownership and cattle size were identified as a region-specific determinant, especially in Ethiopia (Berhe et al., 2017; Chekol et al., 2022), reflecting the reliance on animal manure as feedstock for biogas digesters.

West Africa (Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon)

The synthesis result of included studies reveals that the adoption of small-scale biogas is strongly influenced by farmers’ level of awareness, financial capacity, and access to technical services (Ketuama and Roubík, 2024; Mukaila et al., 2024; Oduro et al., 2023). While farmers’ educational level remains important, studies suggest that practical knowledge about biogas benefits and training is more critical than formal education alone in West Africa. In this region, socio-cultural factors, such as gender disparities, community norms, and cultures, excessively influence adoption, particularly in Ghana (Issahaku et al., 2025). This result indicates that the situation requires inclusive strategies that address social barriers.

Despite the limited empirical evidence from West Africa included in this review, the findings indicate that livestock ownership and cattle size are less influential determinants in this region compared to the East African region, reflecting different agricultural and feedstock contexts. The synthesized results also confirm that financial constraints, including high installation costs and limited access to credit, emerge as consistent barriers, similar to those observed in the East African region.

Southern Africa (South Africa, Zimbabwe, Malawi)

The notable difference in this region shows that institutional-, financial-, and policy-related factors dominantly determined the adoption of biogas over other household and socio-economic factors (Kulugomba et al., 2024; Maramura et al., 2020; Uhunamure et al., 2019). Like other African region, high installation costs and weak institutional support are the most frequently reported barriers, especially in South Africa and Malawi. The diffusion of biogas technology and feedstock constraints also shape adoption, reflecting the contextual and infrastructural challenges of the region. Despite awareness creation being critical in East and West Africa, low awareness alone seems insufficient in Southern Africa due to more structural barriers such as policy fragmentation and coordination gaps among promoting institutions.

North Africa (Sudan, Morocco)

In North Africa, the adoption of small-scale biogas technology is primarily determined by financial and technical-related factors (Ngetuny et al., 2025). Like the majority of African regions, awareness and education are still important, but high start-up costs and limited technical expertise are the most identified barriers in various studies. The environmental factors, such as over-dependence on fuelwood, significantly influence the adoption of biogas in Sudan (Hamad et al., 2018). Compared to other African regions, socio-economic factors like household size and livestock ownership appear less relevant, indicating a distinct adoption context.

Central Africa (Cameroon, DRC)

The evidence base on small-scale biogas adoption in Central Africa is limited, with most available empirical studies concentrated in Cameroon. Existing literature indicates that biogas technology has clear economic feasibility and potential livelihood benefits for rural households. However, despite this potential, adoption remains low and largely restricted to pilot and demonstration projects (Ketuama and Roubík, 2024). The main constraints include financial limitations, weak institutional and market support, and insufficient access to extension and technical services. Although biogas systems have been shown to improve rural livelihoods and contribute to environmental sustainability, their diffusion remains constrained by structural and implementation barriers (Balgah, 2016). Overall, biogas adoption in Central Africa, including the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), is still at an early stage, requiring stronger policy support and targeted investment to facilitate wider uptake (HomeBiogas, 2023; Kalina et al., 2022).

Overall, the synthesized result confirmed the existence of common determinants and regional heterogeneity in the factors influencing biogas adoption in rural Africa. Despite variations across regions, there are several factors that are consistently identified as common drivers of biogas adoption in Africa. These factors include education and awareness, financial capacity, and access to technical support, while information gaps, high installation costs, and limited access to credit emerge as common barriers. Similarly, the review identified region-specific factors that determine the adoption of small-scale biogas, including livestock ownership and household socio-economic conditions in East Africa, socio-cultural dynamics in West Africa, institutional and policy constraints in Southern Africa, technical, financial, and environmental pressures in North Africa, and limited empirical evidence alongside early-stage adoption patterns and structural constraints in Central Africa. These findings imply that there is an urgent need to design context-specific strategies that are essential for effectively scaling up biogas adoption across the continent. Moreover, the findings emphasize that while broad patterns can be observed, further research is needed in underrepresented regions to support more balanced, continent-wide conclusions.

Contributions of small-scale biogas systems to multiple sustainable development goals in Africa

The result of the synthesized result examines the integrated impact of small-scale household biogas in achieving multiple SDGs 5, 7, 13, and 15 in Africa. The reviewed empirical evidence suggests that biogas technology functions as an integrated intervention with the potential to simultaneously address energy poverty, gender inequality, climate change, and land degradation. The review discussion is organized according to the thematic categorization of evidence. However, given that much of the included evidence is cross-sectional and descriptive, these findings should be interpreted as indicative of associations rather than definitive causal relationships.

Biogas and access to clean and affordable energy (SDG 7)

Despite several reviewed empirical evidence shows that the majority of the population in rural Africa covers their energy demand for tradition biomass fuels, including firewood, charcoal, cow dung, and agricultural by-products. Recently, studies consistently suggest that small-scale biogas systems are associated with improved access to clean, affordable, and reliable energy across African rural settings. The adoption of this technology is associated with the substitution of traditional fuels such as firewood, charcoal, dung cake, and kerosene, which may result in lower household energy expenditures and improved energy security (Marambanyika et al., 2020; Seboka, 2019; Wassie and Adaramola, 2020). Particularly, the studies from Ethiopia, Kenya, Zimbabwe, Cameroon, and South Africa report that biogas adopter households tend to experience reduced fuel expenditure, which may contribute to improved living conditions of rural households (Balgah, 2016; Gebretsadik et al., 2025; Hamid and Blanchard, 2018).

Empirical evidence further indicates that the environmental co-benefits of biogas utilization additionally support its potential role in achieving SDG 7. However, challenges related to system functionality persist across the continent (Getaneh et al., 2024; Shallo and Sime, 2019). Hence, these findings underscore that while biogas appears to be a promising approach for improving energy access, its sustained impacts are likely to depend on supportive policy, financing, and maintenance frameworks.

Biogas and women's empowerment (SDG 5)

Strong empirical evidence across multiple included studies suggests that the adoption of biogas is associated with improvements in gender equality and women's empowerment in Africa. According to the studies, the utilization of biogas is associated with reduced time spent for collecting firewood, cooking, which may lower women's daily workload and physical burden (Abadi et al., 2017; Gebretsadik et al., 2025; Hamad et al., 2018). Some studies found that biogas usage can save up to 70% of time, which women can allocate to other activities like income generation, community participation, and education (Gebretsadik et al., 2025).

Biogas utilization is also associated with women’s health improvements that create another critical empowerment pathway. Biogas is reported to reduce exposure of women and children to indoor air pollution and may lower respiratory and eye-related illnesses, thereby addressing gendered health risks associated with traditional cooking practices (Abadi et al., 2017; Getaneh et al., 2024; Hamad et al., 2018; Msibi and Kornelius, 2017). In addition, several empirical studies report a positive association between biogas adopter households and women’s decision-making power, skills development, and participation in household and energy-related decisions (Tornel-Vázquez et al., 2025; Wilkes and Dijk, 2017). These findings suggest that biogas may contribute to both practical and strategic gender outcomes, thereby supporting the success of SDG 5.

Biogas and climate action (SDG 13)

The systematic review found that empirical studies consistently report that biogas systems are associated with reduced GHG emissions and may support climate action across African communities. However, the magnitude of reported benefits varies substantially depending on system characteristics, baseline energy use, and accounting methods. The synthesized results reported emission reductions ranged from approximately 58% per household (relative reductions) to over 6000 kg CO₂e per household per year (absolute reductions), mainly due to reduced fuelwood consumption and improved manure management (Bedasa, 2025; Lemma, 2021). These differences reflect variation in baseline fuel use (e.g. reliance on fuelwood versus mixed energy sources), biogas system size, livestock ownership, and system boundaries (e.g. inclusion of manure management and avoided methane emissions).

Across comparative studies, biogas adopters consistently exhibit lower GHG emissions than non-adopters, although the scale of reduction is context-specific (Bedasa, 2025). Evidence from district- and regional-level assessments similarly indicates meaningful emission reductions, thus indicating that biogas technology has the potential to be scalable as an intervention for climate change mitigation strategies (Gabisa and Gheewala, 2019). However, given the heterogeneity in measurement approaches and reporting units, these estimates should not be interpreted as directly comparable but rather as indicative of a general trend toward emission reduction. Additionally, the use of bio-slurry as a substitute for synthetic fertilizer is associated with reduced emissions associated with fertilizer production and application (Jared et al., 2016; Tekle and Sime, 2022). Overall, this part of the evidence suggests that biogas can be considered an effective renewable energy intervention aligned with SDG 13.

Biogas, life on land, and ecosystem protection (SDG 15)

The reviewed literature also revealed that biogas adoption is associated with outcomes related to forest conservation, sustainable land management, and biodiversity protection. Multiple included studies in the review documented substantial reductions in fuelwood consumption, which are associated with measurable forest conservation outcomes, including hectares of forest saved annually and preservation of preferred tree species (Korir, 2019; Mwirigi, 2018; Wakjira et al., 2024).

The empirical evidence also suggests that fuelwood savings may reduce deforestation pressure while supporting sustainable land-use practices in Africa. Significantly, the application of biogas slurry as organic fertilizer is associated with enhanced soil fertility, restoration of degraded land, and encouragement of climate-smart agriculture practices in Africa (Destaa et al., 2020; Jared et al., 2016). These findings also indicate that biogas may serve as a viable technology for integrating rural energy needs with environmental conservation objectives, thereby contributing to the achievement of SDG 15 in Africa.

Biogas as an integrated intervention linking energy access, gender equality, climate action, and ecosystem protection

The findings of this review suggest potential linkages across SDGs 7 (clean energy), 5 (gender equality), 13 (climate action), and 15 (life on land) associated with biogas adoption, rather than conclusively demonstrating synergistic interactions. The evidence primarily indicates that biogas contributes to multiple development outcomes across sectors, although these effects are often reported independently rather than as empirically integrated or co-produced within single studies. Accordingly, biogas can be understood as a multi-dimensional rural development intervention with potential cross-sectoral benefits, rather than a definitively established synergistic solution (Figure 5).

Figure 5.

Synergistic role of biogas on energy access, gender equality, climate action, and ecosystem protection.

Biogas adoption can increase access to clean and affordable energy (SDG 7) by reducing reliance on traditional biomass fuels, which in turn lowers fuelwood consumption and household energy expenditures (Gebretsadik et al., 2025; Seboka, 2019; Shallo and Sime, 2019; Wassie and Adaramola, 2020). These energy-related outcomes are frequently associated with environmental benefits, including reductions in GHG emissions and deforestation pressure, thereby contributing to climate mitigation (SDG 13) and ecosystem protection (SDG 15). Empirical evidence across Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania shows that biogas-adopting households emit less CO₂e than non-adopters while conserving forest resources annually (Bedasa, 2025; Kefalew and Lami, 2021; Mwirigi, 2018; Wakjira et al., 2024). However, most studies assess these outcomes separately, limiting direct evidence of interaction effects.

The review also indicates consistent co-benefits between energy access (SDG 7) and women's empowerment (SDG 5), although these are typically examined within specific outcome domains rather than through integrated analytical frameworks. Biogas adoption reduces women's workload and exposure to indoor air pollution and related health risks (Abadi et al., 2017; Gebretsadik et al., 2025; Hamad et al., 2018; Msibi and Kornelius, 2017). These findings suggest meaningful social benefits that may contribute to empowerment, though the strength and scope of these effects remain context-dependent. Very importantly, reduced fuelwood collection is associated with lower deforestation rates and improved forest regeneration (Ali, 2021; Korir, 2019), indicating potential linkages between gender, energy, and environmental outcomes rather than fully demonstrated reinforcing interactions.

At the environmental level, studies show that improved manure management and the application of bio-slurry as organic fertilizer contribute to both climate mitigation (SDG 13) and ecosystem sustainability (SDG 15) (Destaa et al., 2020; Jared et al., 2016; Tekle and Sime, 2022). These findings point to concurrent environmental benefits, although empirical evidence explicitly examining their combined or reinforcing effects remains limited. Evidence in the review suggests that biogas contributes to reduced emissions, improved soil fertility, and biodiversity conservation (Bedasa, 2025; Gabisa and Gheewala, 2019; Lemma et al., 2021). Overall, while the literature indicates promising cross-sectoral co-benefits, it does not yet provide sufficient evidence to conclusively establish synergistic interactions across SDGs. These findings highlight the need for future research employing integrated frameworks to better assess interaction effects and co-produced outcomes across SDGs. From a policy perspective, coordinated approaches that align clean energy access with gender empowerment, climate mitigation, and ecosystem conservation remain important, but should be pursued with recognition of the current evidence limitations.

Evidence gaps and future research implications

Based on the synthesized results of this systematic review, there is strong evidence that small-scale biogas systems contribute to SDGs 5, 7, 13, and 15. Yet the overall knowledge base regarding the adoption and multidimensional role of biogas in Africa remains fragmented and limited in scope. Most available research in the continent mainly focuses on single-outcome or sector-specific impacts, with relatively few studies adopting a multidimensional or systems-based perspective that captures the broader and interconnected social, economic, environmental, and institutional implications of biogas adoption. Consequently, important co-benefits and trade-offs such as livelihood diversification, education outcomes, food security, and rural resilience remain insufficiently examined.

In addition, the empirical literature is dominated by short-term and cross-sectional analyses, providing limited insight into the long-term sustainability, functionality, and scalability of biogas systems across diverse African contexts. Gender-related outcomes are often assessed using proxy indicators, with limited attention to intra-household dynamics, intersectionality, and structural inequalities. Similarly, evidence on climate and ecosystem impacts remains geographically uneven and methodologically inconsistent, with few studies employing standardized metrics, life-cycle assessments, or ecosystem-level analyses. Future research should therefore prioritize longitudinal, mixed-methods, and comparative studies that integrate policy, financing, institutional, and socio-cultural dimensions, enabling a more holistic understanding of biogas as a transformative rural development intervention and better informing evidence-based policy and practice across Africa.

Limitation of the review

Despite generating critical results, this review has several limitations. First, the literature is geographically uneven, with a strong concentration of studies from East Africa and limited studies were found from Central and North Africa, reducing the generalizability of findings across the continent. Second, some of the included studies rely on descriptive or cross-sectional methods, limiting causal inference and insights into long-term impacts and sustainability of biogas systems. In addition, gender and environmental outcomes are often measured using proxy indicators, with insufficient attention to intra-household dynamics, intersectionality, and ecosystem-level effects. Finally, the variability in methods and indicators across studies constrained direct comparison and synthesis of results.

Furthermore, the review may be subject to publication bias, as studies reporting positive or significant outcomes are more likely to be published and included in the evidence base. In addition, the restriction to English-language publications may have excluded relevant studies published in other languages, potentially introducing language bias.

Conclusion

This systematic review of 73 studies demonstrates that small-scale biogas systems are not merely isolated energy technologies but systemic development tools capable of advancing multiple SDGs across Africa. The evidence confirms that biogas adoption provides a critical entry point for achieving SDG 7 (Clean Energy), which subsequently triggers a “ripple effect” across SDG 5 (Gender Equality), SDG 13 (Climate Action), and SDG 15 (Life on Land). This conclusion is strongly supported by consistent evidence from East Africa, where the majority of empirical studies demonstrate co-benefits across energy access, gender outcomes, and environmental sustainability, while evidence from other regions remains more limited but directionally consistent.

The central contribution of this study is the documentation of these interlinked outcomes: clean energy access is consistently associated with reduced women's time poverty, while the transition away from fuelwood is linked to climate mitigation and forest conservation outcomes across multiple contexts. However, the uneven adoption rates across the continent highlight that technical availability alone is insufficient. Regionally, East African evidence shows that financial and awareness constraints remain key barriers despite higher adoption levels, whereas in West, Southern, North, and Central Africa, structural and institutional limitations are more dominant, further constraining scale-up. High upfront costs, fragmented institutional support, and socio-cultural barriers remain significant hurdles across regions.

To fully realize the potential of biogas in Africa, a shift from sector-specific to integrated and context-sensitive policy frameworks is required. Such frameworks should reflect regional differences in drivers and barriers identified in this review, particularly the stronger evidence base in East Africa and the emerging but limited evidence in Central and North Africa. Moving forward, scaling these systems will depend on inclusive financing models that recognize bio-slurry as an economic asset and longitudinal research that tracks long-term technical and social sustainability of these interventions across diverse African contexts.

Implications for policy and practice

To translate evidence into impact, this review proposes prioritized actions for policymakers, donors, and practitioners:

Mainstream Biogas in Rural Development (SDG 7): Governments must shift from “pilot-project” approaches to scalable national energy strategies. This recommendation is strongly supported by East African evidence, where biogas systems have demonstrated consistent improvements in energy access but remain constrained by financing and maintenance gaps. Policy: Integrate biogas into National Electrification Plans and Clean Cooking Roadmaps. Practice: Standardize post-installation maintenance protocols to reduce system failure and abandonment.

Institutionalize Gender-Responsive Frameworks (SDG 5): Biogas programs should move beyond passive benefits to active empowerment. This is particularly relevant in East and West Africa, where evidence shows reduced time burden and improved participation of women in household decision-making. Policy: Mandate gender-sensitive indicators in energy project reporting. Practice: Design targeted training for female technicians and develop microcredit schemes for female-headed households.

Align Biogas with Climate and Land-Use Goals (SDGs 13 & 15): Biogas provides co-benefits for emissions reduction and ecosystem protection. Evidence from East Africa strongly supports this linkage, particularly through reduced fuelwood consumption and improved manure management, while evidence from other regions remains emerging. Policy: Include small-scale biogas in nationally determined contributions and GHG inventories. Practice: Promote bio-slurry use as organic fertilizer to reduce dependence on synthetic inputs and enhance soil fertility.

Adopt Region-Specific Strategies: A uniform approach is not appropriate given the heterogeneity of evidence across Africa. East Africa requires strategies focused on scaling and financing, West Africa requires awareness and socio-cultural adaptation, Southern Africa requires institutional strengthening, North Africa requires affordability and technical capacity development, and Central Africa requires foundational system expansion and pilot-to-market transition support.

Implement Systems-Based Monitoring and Evaluation: Monitoring frameworks should move beyond output-based indicators. Given the multi-SDG impacts consistently reported in East African studies, evaluation systems should capture cross-sectoral outcomes such as time savings for women, reductions in fuelwood use, and improvements in soil fertility and forest conservation.

Supplemental Material

sj-docx-1-eea-10.1177_01445987261451888 - Supplemental material for Implications of biogas adoption on Africa's SDGs: A systematic review

Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-eea-10.1177_01445987261451888 for Implications of biogas adoption on Africa's SDGs: A systematic review by Getasew Daru Tariku, Sinkie Alemu Kebede and Degsew Melak Gobgnew, Wondim Awoke Kassa in Energy Exploration & Exploitation

Supplemental Material

sj-docx-2-eea-10.1177_01445987261451888 - Supplemental material for Implications of biogas adoption on Africa's SDGs: A systematic review

Supplemental material, sj-docx-2-eea-10.1177_01445987261451888 for Implications of biogas adoption on Africa's SDGs: A systematic review by Getasew Daru Tariku, Sinkie Alemu Kebede and Degsew Melak Gobgnew, Wondim Awoke Kassa in Energy Exploration & Exploitation

Footnotes

ORCID iD

Getasew Daru Tariku

Author contributions

Getasew Daru Tariku led the study design, coordinated the review, analyzed and interpreted data, and drafted the manuscript. Sinkie Alemu Kebede contributed to study design, supported data analysis, and critically revised the manuscript. Degsew Melak provided methodological guidance, assisted in data interpretation, and revised the manuscript. Wondim Awoke contributed to data interpretation, manuscript review, and academic input. All authors approved the final version and are accountable for the work's integrity.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data availability statement

This manuscript is a review article and did not generate new experimental data. All data and information presented are sourced from previously published studies, reports, and publicly available datasets, which are cited throughout the manuscript.

Supplemental material

Supplemental material for this article is available online.

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