Educational practitioners increasingly adopt mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) to alleviate language learners’ stress when acquiring a second language (L2). Nevertheless, the influence of such interventions on L2 learning apprehension has not been consistent across previous research. To address this, the current study employed a three-level random-effect meta-analysis to synthesize prior research and explore the efficacy and mechanisms of MBIs in reducing L2 anxiety. This meta-analysis incorporated 21 effect sizes from 11 studies, revealing a significant decrease in L2 anxiety among students receiving MBIs compared with those who did not (Cohen's d: 0.425, 95% CI [0.219, 0.631], p < .0001). No significant moderators were identified. The findings indicated that MBIs played a vital role in reducing anxiety among L2 learners.
AppelbaumM.CooperH.KlineR. B.Mayo-WilsonE.NezuA. M.RaoS. M. (2018). Journal article reporting standards for quantitative research in psychology: The APA Publications and Communications Board task force report. American Psychologist, 73(1), 3–25. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000191
2.
AssinkM.WibbelinkC. J. (2016). Fitting three-level meta-analytic models in R: A step-by-step tutorial. The Quantitative Methods for Psychology, 12(3), 154–174. https://doi.org/10.20982/tqmp.12.3.p154
3.
AydınS.HarputluL.GüzelS.UştukÖ.ÇelikŞ. S.GençD. (2016). Children’s Foreign Language Anxiety Scale: Preliminary tests of reliability and validity. Turkish Online Journal of English Language Teaching, 1(3), 144–150.
4.
BaerR. A.SmithG. T.HopkinsJ.KrietemeyerJ.ToneyL. (2006). Using self-report assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness. Assessment, 13(1), 27–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191105283504
5.
BeaucheminJ.HutchinsT. L.PattersonF. (2008). Mindfulness meditation may lessen anxiety, promote social skills, and improve academic performance among adolescents with learning disabilities. Complementary Health Practice Review, 13(1), 34–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/1533210107311624
6.
BishopS. R.LauM.ShapiroS.CarlsonL.AndersonN. D.CarmodyJ.SegalZ. V.AbbeyS.SpecaM.VeltingD. (2004). Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11(3), 230–241. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.bph077
7.
Borquist-ConlonD. S.MaynardB. R.BrendelK. E.FarinaA. S. (2019). Mindfulness-based interventions for youth with anxiety: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Research on Social Work Practice, 29(2), 195–205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731516684961
8.
BrownK. W.RyanR. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 822–848. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.822
9.
BrownK. W.RyanR. M.CreswellJ. D. (2007). Mindfulness: Theoretical foundations and evidence for its salutary effects. Psychological Inquiry, 18(4), 211–237. https://doi.org/10.1080/10478400701598298
CarsleyD.KhouryB.HeathN. L. (2018). Effectiveness of mindfulness interventions for mental health in schools: A comprehensive meta-analysis. Mindfulness, 9, 693–707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0839-2
12.
ChengY.-S. (2004). A measure of second language writing anxiety: Scale development and preliminary validation. Journal of Second Language Writing, 13(4), 313–335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2004.07.001
13.
ChiesaA.CalatiR.SerrettiA. (2011). Does mindfulness training improve cognitive abilities? A systematic review of neuropsychological findings. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(3), 449–464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.11.003
14.
CraneR. S.BrewerJ.FeldmanC.Kabat-ZinnJ.SantorelliS.WilliamsJ. M. G.KuykenW. (2017). What defines mindfulness-based programs? The warp and the weft. Psychological Medicine, 47(6), 990–999. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291716003317
15.
De RaedtR.BaertS.DemeyerI.GoelevenE.RaesA.VisserA.WysmansM.JansenE.SchachtR.Van AalderenJ. R.SpeckensA. (2012). Changes in attentional processing of emotional information following mindfulness-based cognitive therapy in people with a history of depression: Towards an open attention for all emotional experiences. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 36(6), 612–620. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-011-9411-x
16.
DeVellisR. F.ThorpeC. T. (2021). Scale development: Theory and applications (5th ed.). Sage Publications.
17.
DonaldJ. N.SahdraB. K.Van ZandenB.DuineveldJ. J.AtkinsP. W. B.MarshallS. L.CiarrochiJ. (2019). Does your mindfulness benefit others? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the link between mindfulness and prosocial behaviour. British Journal of Psychology, 110(1), 101–125. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12338
18.
DuvalS.TweedieR. (2000). Trim and fill: A simple funnel-plot–based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Biometrics, 56(2), 455–463. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0006-341X.2000.00455.x
19.
EggerM.SmithG. D.SchneiderM.MinderC. (1997). Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. British Medical Journal, 315(7109), 629–634. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.315.7109.629
ErgasO. (2015). The deeper teachings of mindfulness-based ‘interventions’ as a reconstruction of ‘education’. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 49(2), 203–220. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9752.12137
22.
ErsanliC. Y.ÜnalT. (2022). Impact of mindfulness training on EFL Learners’ willingness to speak, speaking anxiety levels and mindfulness awareness levels. Education Quarterly Reviews, 5(2), 429–448. https://doi.org/10.31014/aior.1993.05.04.634
GerenchealB. (2016). Gender differences in foreign language anxiety at an Ethiopian University: Mizan-Tepi University third year english major students in focus. African Journal of Education and Practice, 1(1), 1–16.
25.
GrepmairL.MitterlehnerF.LoewT.NickelM. (2007). Promotion of mindfulness in psychotherapists in training: Preliminary study. European Psychiatry, 22(8), 485–489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2007.02.004
26.
GuJ.StraussC.BondR.CavanaghK. (2015). How do mindfulness-based cognitive therapy and mindfulness-based stress reduction improve mental health and wellbeing? A systematic review and meta-analysis of mediation studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 37, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2015.01.006
27.
GuendelmanS.MedeirosS.RampesH. (2017). Mindfulness and emotion regulation: Insights from neurobiological, psychological, and clinical studies. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, Article 220. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00220
28.
HaydickyJ.WienerJ.BadaliP.MilliganK.DucharmeJ. M. (2012). Evaluation of a mindfulness-based intervention for adolescents with learning disabilities and co-occurring ADHD and anxiety. Mindfulness, 3(2), 151–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-012-0089-2
29.
HigginsJ. P.ThompsonS. G.DeeksJ. J.AltmanD. G. (2003). Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses. British Medical Journal, 327(7414), 557–560. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.327.7414.557
30.
HiggsM.LichtensteinS. (2010). Exploring the “jingle fallacy”: A study of personality and values. Journal of General Management, 36(1), 43–61. https://doi.org/10.1177/030630701003600103
31.
HofmannS. G.SawyerA. T.WittA. A.OhD. (2010). The effect of mindfulness-based therapy on anxiety and depression: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78(2), 169–183. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018555
HorwitzE. K. (2016a). Factor structure of the foreign language classroom anxiety scale: Comment on park (2014). Psychological Reports, 119(1), 71–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294116653368
34.
HorwitzE. K. (2016b). Reflections on Horwitz (1986), “preliminary evidence for the validity and reliability of a foreign language anxiety scale”. TESOL Quarterly, 50(4), 932–935. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.295
35.
HorwitzE. K. (2017). 3. On the misreading of Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope (1986) and the need to balance anxiety research and the experiences of anxious language learners. In GkonouC.DaubneyM.DewaeleJ.-M. (Eds.), New insights into language anxiety (pp. 31–48). Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781783097722-004
HunterJ. E.SchmidtF. L.LeH. (2006). Implications of direct and indirect range restriction for meta-analysis methods and findings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(3), 594–612. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.91.3.594
38.
JinY.DewaeleJ.-M.MacIntyreP. D. (2021). Reducing anxiety in the foreign language classroom: A positive psychology approach. System, 101,Article 102604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2021.102604
39.
Kabat-ZinnJ. (1990a). Full catastrophe living: The program of the stress reduction clinic at the. University of Massachusetts Medical Center.
40.
Kabat-ZinnJ. (1990b). Mindfulness-based stress reduction. In Using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain, and illness (Vol. 467). Delacorte Press.
41.
Kabat-ZinnJ. (2001). Mindfulness meditation for everyday life. Piatkus Books.
42.
Kabat-ZinnJ. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 144–156. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.bpg016
43.
KangY.RahrigH.EichelK.NilesH. F.RochaT.LeppN. E.GoldJ.BrittonW. B. (2018). Gender differences in response to a school-based mindfulness training intervention for early adolescents. Journal of School Psychology, 68, 163–176.
44.
KatzD.TonerB. (2013). A systematic review of gender differences in the effectiveness of mindfulness-based treatments for substance use disorders. Mindfulness, 4(4), 318–331. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-012-0132-3
45.
KengS.-L.SmoskiM. J.RobinsC. J. (2011). Effects of mindfulness on psychological health: A review of empirical studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(6), 1041–1056. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2011.04.006
46.
KhouryB.LecomteT.FortinG.MasseM.TherienP.BouchardV.ChapleauM.-A.PaquinK.HofmannS. G. (2013). Mindfulness-based therapy: A comprehensive meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 33(6), 763–771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.05.005
47.
KhouryB.SharmaM.RushS. E.FournierC. (2015). Mindfulness-based stress reduction for healthy individuals: A meta-analysis. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 78(6), 519–528. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2015.03.009
48.
KimbleE.LiC.KrugerL. J.CaiQ.BivensA. (2021). Acceptability of bilingual guided meditation with second language learners in a culturally diverse and economically disadvantaged school setting. International Journal of Emotional Education, 13(2), 4–22. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ1319629
KralT. R. A.SchuylerB. S.MumfordJ. A.RosenkranzM. A.LutzA.DavidsonR. J. (2018). Impact of short- and long-term mindfulness meditation training on amygdala reactivity to emotional stimuli. NeuroImage, 181, 301–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.07.013
53.
KrashenS. (1981). Second language acquisition. Second Language Learning, 3(7), 19–39.
54.
LinJ. W.MaiL. J. (2018). Impact of mindfulness meditation intervention on academic performance. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 55(3), 366–375. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2016.1231617
55.
LinL. F.ChuH. T. (2018). Rejoinder to “quantifying publication bias in meta-analysis”. Biometrics, 74(3), 801–802. https://doi.org/10.1111/biom.12815
56.
MacIntyreP.GregersenT. (2012a). Affect: The role of language anxiety and other emotions in language learning. Psychology for Language Learning: Insights from Research, Theory and Practice, 103–118. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137032829_8
57.
MacIntyreP.GregersenT. (2012b). Emotions that facilitate language learning: The positive-broadening power of the imagination. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 2(2), 193–213. https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2012.2.2.4
58.
MacIntyreP. D. (2017). An overview of language anxiety research and trends in its development. New Insights into Language Anxiety: Theory, Research and Educational Implications, 11–30. https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.22730706.5
59.
MacIntyreP. D.BakerS. C.ClémentR.DonovanL. A. (2003). Sex and age effects on willingness to communicate, anxiety, perceived competence, and L2 motivation among junior high school French immersion students. Language Learning, 53(S1), 137–166. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9922.00226
60.
MadonnaJ. (2018). Mindfulness practitioners clarify the concept of “Re-perceiving”: A qualitative interview study. The Graduate Review, 3(1), 111–133.
61.
MaoL.LiP.WuY.LuoL.HuM. (2023). The effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions for ruminative thinking: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Affective Disorders, 321, 83–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.10.022
62.
MarshH. W. (2007). Physical self-concept and sport. In JowettS.LavalleeD. (Eds.), Social psychology in sport (p. 168). Human Kinetics. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781492595878.ch-012
63.
MeiklejohnJ.PhillipsC.FreedmanM. L.GriffinM. L.BiegelG.RoachA.FrankJ.BurkeC.PingerL.SolowayG.IsbergR.SibingaE.GrossmanL.SaltzmanA. (2012). Integrating mindfulness training into K-12 education: Fostering the resilience of teachers and students. Mindfulness, 3(4), 291–307. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-012-0094-5
64.
MorganW.KatzJ. (2021). Mindfulness meditation and foreign language classroom anxiety: Findings from a randomized control trial. Foreign Language Annals, 54, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12525
ÖnemE. E. (2015). A study on the effects of meditation on anxiety and foreign language vocabulary learning. Journal of Language and Literature Education15, 134–148. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=ED573228
68.
ÖnerN.Le CompteV. A. (1985). State-trait anxiety inventory handbook.
69.
PageM. J.MckenzieJ. E.BossuytP. M.BoutronI.HoffmannT. C.MulrowC. D.ShamseerL.TetzlaffJ. M.AklE. A.BrennanS. E. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. International Journal of Surgery, 88,Article 105906. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2021.105906
70.
ParkG.-P.FrenchB. F. (2013). Gender differences in the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale. System, 41(2), 462–471.
71.
PlonskyL.OswaldF. L. (2014). How big is “big”? interpreting effect sizes in L2 research. Language Learning, 64(4), 878–912. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12079
72.
QuagliaJ. T.BrownK. W.LindsayE. K.CreswellJ. D.GoodmanR. J. (2015). From conceptualization to operationalization of mindfulness. In BrownK. W.CreswellJ. D.RyanR. M. (Eds.), Handbook of mindfulness: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 151–170). Guilford Press.
73.
RamakrishnaA.PrustyR. (2022). Effect of Sahaja yoga meditation in reducing anxiety level of class VI studies towards English as a second language. International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Literature, 10(10), 17–24.
74.
RoeserR. W.PeckS. C. (2009). An education in awareness: Self, motivation, and self-regulated learning in contemplative perspective. Educational Psychologist, 44(2), 119–136. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520902832376
SaitoY.GarzaT. J.HorwitzE. K. (1999). Foreign language reading anxiety. The Modern Language Journal, 83(2), 202–218. https://doi.org/10.1111/0026-7902.00016
77.
ScidaE. E.JonesJ. E. (2017). The impact of contemplative practices on foreign language anxiety and learning. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 7(4), 573–599. https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2017.7.4.2
78.
SegalZ. V.TeasdaleJ. D.WilliamsJ. M.GemarM. C. (2002). The mindfulness-based cognitive therapy adherence scale: Inter-rater reliability, adherence to protocol and treatment distinctiveness. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 9(2), 131–138. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.320
79.
ShapiroS. L.CarlsonL. E.AstinJ. A.FreedmanB. (2006). Mechanisms of mindfulness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62(3), 373–386. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.v62:3
80.
SijtsmaK. (2009). On the use, the misuse, and the very limited usefulness of Cronbach’s alpha. Psychometrika, 74(1), 107–120. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11336-008-9101-0
SoW. (2022). The scientific basis of qigong as mind-body intervention to reduce foreign language anxiety. [Doctoral Dissertation]. The Hong Kong Polytechnic University. https://theses.lib.polyu.edu.hk/handle/200/11972
83.
SpadaroK. C.HunkerD. F. (2016). Exploring the effects of an online asynchronous mindfulness meditation intervention with nursing students on stress, mood, and cognition: A descriptive study. Nurse Education Today, 39, 163–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2016.02.006
84.
SparksR. L.PattonJ.LuebbersJ. (2018). L2 anxiety and the foreign language Reading anxiety scale: Listening to the evidence. Foreign Language Annals, 51(4), 738–762. https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12361
85.
SpijkermanM. P. J.PotsW. T. M.BohlmeijerE. (2016). Effectiveness of online mindfulness-based interventions in improving mental health: A review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Clinical Psychology Review, 45, 102–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2016.03.009
86.
TasanM.MedeE.SadeghiK. (2021). The effect of pranayamic breathing as a positive psychology exercise on foreign language learning anxiety and test anxiety among language learners at tertiary level. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 742060. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.742060
TeimouriY.GoetzeJ.PlonskyL. (2019). Second language anxiety and achievement: A meta-analysis. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 41(2), 363–387. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263118000311
89.
ThorndikeE. (1904). An introduction to the theory of mental and social measures (pp. 10–11). Teachers College, Columbia University.
90.
TudorK.MaloneyS.RajaA.BaerR.BlakemoreS. J.ByfordS.CraneC.DalgleishT.De WildeK.FordT.GreenbergM.HinzeV.LordL.RadleyL.OpaleyeE. S.TaylorL.UkoumunneO. C.VinerR.KuykenW.Montero-MarinJ. (2022). Universal mindfulness training in schools for adolescents: A scoping review and conceptual model of moderators, mediators, and implementation factors. Prevention Science, 23(6), 934–953. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-022-01361-9
91.
Van den NoortgateW.López-LópezJ. A.Marín-MartínezF.Sánchez-MecaJ. (2013). Three-level meta-analysis of dependent effect sizes. Behavior Research Methods, 45(2), 576–594. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-012-0261-6
92.
ViechtbauerW. (2010). Conducting meta-analyses in R with the metafor package. Journal of Statistical Software, 36(3), 1–48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v036.i03
93.
ViechtbauerW.CheungM. W. L. (2010). Outlier and influence diagnostics for meta-analysis. Research Synthesis Methods, 1(2), 112–125. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.11
YoungK. S.van der VeldenA. M.CraskeM. G.PallesenK. J.FjorbackL.RoepstorffA.ParsonsC. E. (2018). The impact of mindfulness-based interventions on brain activity: A systematic review of functional magnetic resonance imaging studies. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 84, 424–433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.08.003
96.
ZennerC.Herrnleben-KurzS.WalachH. (2014). Mindfulness-based interventions in schools—a systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 5,Article 603. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00603
97.
ZhangJ. (2023). Modelling the interplay of writing achievement goals and grit in predicting L2 writing achievements. System, 117,Article 103118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2023.103118
98.
ZhangJ.MaoY.WangY.ZhangY. (2023). The relationship between trait mindfulness and resilience: A meta-analysis. Personality and Mental Health, 17(4), 313–327. https://doi.org/10.1002/pmh.1581
99.
ZhangJ.WangE. (2022). Indulging in smartphones in times of stress: A moderated mediation model of experiential avoidance and trait mindfulness. Behavioral Sciences, 12(12),Article 485. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs12120485
100.
ZhangX. (2019). Foreign language anxiety and foreign language performance: A meta-analysis. The Modern Language Journal, 103(4), 763–781. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12590
101.
ZhouS.ChiuM. M.DongZ.ZhouW. (2023). Foreign language anxiety and foreign language self-efficacy: A meta-analysis. Current Psychology, 42, 31536–31550. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-04110-x
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
