There is little evidence regarding the impact of helicopter parenting (HP) on adolescents’ school adjustment (SA). This study examined gender differences in maternal/paternal HP, internal/external academic locus of control (ALC) and SA, and the mediating effect of internal/external ALC in the relationship between maternal/paternal HP and SA in adolescents. The participants of the study were 447 adolescents. The results revealed no significant gender differences in study variables except for external ALC. Adolescent boys indicated significantly higher levels of external ALC than girls. HP predicted ALC and SA, and internal/external ALC had a mediating role in the relationship between HP and SA. This study provides important insights for researchers and practitioners seeking to understand the effects of maternal/paternal HP on adolescent SA. The results of our study suggest that HP may be associated with lower SA among adolescents and that internal ALC may be a key mechanism in this relationship.
AkınA. (2010). Achievement goals and academic locus of control: Structural equation modeling. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research (EJER), 10(38), 1–18.
2.
Al-HendawiM.KliewerW.HusseinE. (2022). School adjustment and academic success in Qatari secondary school students: Associations with well-being and emotional and behavioral problems. Education Sciences, 12(12), Article 934. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci12120934
3.
Arslanİ. B.LucassenN.KeijsersL.StevensG. W. (2023). When too much help is of no help: Mothers’ and fathers’ perceived overprotective behavior and (mal)adaptive functioning in adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 52(5), 1010–1023. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-022-01723-0.
4.
ArslanA.YenerS.ErogulM. (2023). Career indecision among Turkish female high school students: The effect of parenting and societal norms. Current Psychology, 42(27), 23986–24002. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03521-0
5.
AspelmeierJ. E.LoveM. M.McGillL. A.ElliottA. N.PierceT. W. (2012). Self-esteem, locus of control, college adjustment, and GPA among first-and continuing-generation students: A moderator model of generational status. Research in Higher Education, 53(7), 755–781. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-011-9252-1
6.
BaumrindD. (1971). Current patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology, 4(1, Pt.2), 1–103. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0030372
7.
BrenningK.SoenensB.Van PetegemS.VansteenkisteM. (2015). Perceived maternal autonomy support and early adolescent emotion regulation: A longitudinal study. Social Development, 24(3), 561–578. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12107
8.
BristowJ. (2014). The double bind of parenting culture: Helicopter parents and cotton wool kids. In Parenting culture studies (pp. 200–215). Palgrave Macmillan.
9.
BuchannonC. D. (2015). An examination of the relationship between helicopter parenting and college adjustment and the effects of emotional intelligence. [Doctoral dissertation, Auburn University].
10.
ByrneB. M. (1998). Structural equation modeling with Lisrel, Prelis, and Simplis: Basic concepts, applications, and programming (1st ed.). Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203774762
11.
ChecaP.Abundis-GutierrezA. (2018). Parenting styles, academic achievement and the influence of culture. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Research Study, 1(4), 1–3. https://doi.org/10.31031/pprs.2018.01.000518
12.
ChristensonS.ReschlyA. L. (Eds.) (2010). Handbook of school-family partnerships (pp. 345–361). Routledge.
13.
ClineF. W.FayJ. (1990). Parenting with love and logic: Teaching children responsibility. Pinon.
14.
CuiM.AllenJ. W.FinchamF. D.MayR. W.LoveH. (2019). Helicopter parenting, self-regulatory processes, and alcohol use among female college students. Journal of Adult Development, 26(2), 97–104. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-018-9301-5
15.
DarlowV.NorvilitisJ. M.SchuetzeP. (2017). The relationship between helicopter parenting and adjustment to college. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(8), 2291–2298. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0751-3
16.
DuCetteJ.WolkS. (1972). Locus of control and extreme behavior. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 39(2), Article 253. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0033386
17.
DurnaliM.FilizB.AydinE. (2018). Okula Uyum Ölçeği’nin Türk Kültürüne Uyarlanması. Sakarya University Journal of Education, 8(3), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.19126/suje.357548
18.
FindleyM. J.CooperH. M. (1983). Locus of control and academic achievement: A literature review. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(2), Article 419. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.2.419
19.
FlamantN.BoncquetM.Van PetegemS.HaerensL.BeyersW.SoenensB. (2022). To endure or to resist? Adolescents’ coping with overprotective parenting. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 82, Article 101444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2022.101444
20.
GanaprakasamC.DavaidassK. S.MuniandyS. C. (2018). Helicopter parenting and psychological consequences among adolescent. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 8(6), 378–382. https://doi.org/10.29322/IJSRP.8.6.2018.p7849
21.
GaoW.HouY.NelsonL. J.XuY.MengL. (2023). Helicopter parenting and Chinese University students’ adjustment: The mediation of autonomy and moderation of the sense of entitlement. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2963373/v1
22.
GhoshS.VohraN. (2021). Procrastination and anxiety among Indian college students: The role of perceived parenting styles, locus of control and self efficacy. PsyArXivhttps://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/wbf5v
23.
HasanS. S.KhalidR. (2014). Academic locus of control of high and low achieving students. Journal of Research & Reflections in Education (JRRE), 8(1), 22–33.
24.
HashemiZ.NaghshZ.KadkhodaieM. (2023). The mediating role of external locus of control in the relationship between parenting styles and emotional and academic resilience. Mental Health: Research & Practice (MHRP), 2(1), 35–45. https://doi.org/10.22034/MHRP.2023.336490.1012
HongP.CuiM. (2020). Helicopter parenting and college students’ psychological maladjustment: The role of self-control and living arrangement. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 29(2), 338–347. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01541-2
27.
HowellA. J.WatsonD. C.PowellR. A.BuroK. (2006). Academic procrastination: The pattern and correlates of behavioural postponement. Personality and Individual Differences, 40(8), 1519–1530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.11.023
28.
HuL. T.BentlerP. M. (1998). Fit indices in covariance structure modeling: Sensitivity to under parameterized model misspecification. Psychological Methods, 3(4), 424–453. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.3.4.424
29.
HwangW.JungE. (2021). Parenting practices, parent–child relationship, and perceived academic control in college students. Journal of Adult Development, 28(1), 37–49. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-020-09346-0
30.
HwangW.JungE.FuX.ZhangY.KoK.LeeS. A.LeeY. M.LeeS.YouH. K.KangY. (2022). Typologies of helicopter parenting in American and Chinese young-adults’ game and social media addictive behaviors. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 31(4), 1030–1044. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-021-02213-w
31.
InH. (2022). Longitudinal and reciprocal relationships between self-esteem, school adjustment, and happiness in Korean secondary school students. School Psychology International, 43(2), 135–155. https://doi.org/10.1177/01430343211072426
32.
JoussemetM.LandryR.KoestnerR. (2008). A self-determination theory perspective on parenting. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 49(3), Article 194. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012754
KayaÖ. S.AkgünE. (2016). Okul öncesi dönemdeki çocukların okula uyum düzeylerinin çeşitli değişkenler açısından incelenmesi. İlköğretim Online, 15(4), 1311–1324. https://doi.org/10.17051/io.2016.51992.
35.
KerrM.StattinH.ÖzdemirM. (2012). Perceived parenting style and adolescent adjustment: Revisiting directions of effects and the role of parental knowledge. Developmental Psychology, 48(6), 1540–1553. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027720
36.
KimJ. (2018). Comparing mothers’ and fathers’ helicopter parenting as predictors of self-efficacy among emerging adults in college. [Master's theses]. 1056.
37.
KimS. W.HillN. E. (2015). Including fathers in the picture: A meta-analysis of parental involvement and students’ academic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(4), Article 919. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000023
38.
KleinM. B.PierceJ. D. (2009). Parental care aids, but parental overprotection hinders, college adjustment. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 11(2), 167–181. https://doi.org/10.2190/CS.11.2.a
39.
KlineR. B. (2015). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. Guilford Publications.
40.
KuppensS.CeulemansE. (2019). Parenting styles: A closer look at a well-known concept. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28(1), 168–181. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1242-x
41.
KwonK. A.YooG.BinghamG. E. (2016). Helicopter parenting in emerging adulthood: Support or barrier for Korean college students’ psychological adjustment?Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(1), 136–145. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0195-6
42.
KwonK. A.YooG.De GagneJ. C. (2017). Does culture matter? A qualitative inquiry of helicopter parenting in Korean American college students. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(7), 1979–1990. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0694-8
43.
LakhaniP. K.JainK.ChandelP. K. (2017). School adjustment, motivation and academic achievement among students. International Journal of Research in Social Sciences, 7(10), 333–348.
44.
LampertJ. N. (2009). Parental attachment styles and traditional undergraduates’ adjustment to college: Testing the “helicopter parent” phenomenon. [Doctoral dissertation, Pacific University].
45.
LandisB. D.AltmanJ. D.CavinJ. D. (2007). Underpinnings of academic success: Effective study skills use as a function of academic locus of control and self-efficacy. Psi Chi Journal of Undergraduate Research, 12(3), 126–130. https://doi.org/10.24839/1089-4136.JN12.3.126
46.
LeMoyneT.BuchananT. (2011). Does “hovering” matter? Helicopter parenting and its effect on well-being. Sociological Spectrum, 31(4), 399–418. https://doi.org/10.1080/02732173.2011.574038
47.
LoveH.MayR. W.CuiM.FinchamF. D. (2020). Helicopter parenting, self-control, and school burnout among emerging adults. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 29(2), 327–337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01560-z
MathijsL.MoutonB.ZimmermannG.Van PetegemS. (2023). Overprotective parenting and social anxiety in adolescents: The role of emotion regulation. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships. 41(2), 413–434. https://doi.org/10.1177/02654075231173722.
50.
MooneyS. P.ShermanM. F.Lo PrestoC. T. (1991). Academic locus of control, self-esteem, and perceived distance from home as predictors of college adjustment. Journal of Counseling & Development, 69(5), 445–448. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.1991.tb01542.x
51.
Morales-CastilloM. (2023). Coping, school adjustment and academic achievement in early adolescence. Educational and Developmental Psychologist, 40(2), 171–180. https://doi.org/10.1080/20590776.2022.2109959
52.
MorrisA. S.SilkJ. S.SteinbergL.MyersS. S.RobinsonL. R. (2007). The role of the family context in the development of emotion regulation. Social Development, 16(2), 361–388. https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9507.2007.00389.x
53.
NelsonL. J.Padilla-WalkerL. M.NielsonM. G. (2015). Is hovering smothering or loving? An examination of parental warmth as a moderator of relations between helicopter parenting and emerging adults’ indices of adjustment. Emerging Adulthood, 3(4), 282–285. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696815576458
54.
OdenwellerK. G.Booth-ButterfieldM.WeberK. (2014). Investigating helicopter parenting, family environments, and relational outcomes for millennials. Communication Studies, 65(4), 407–425. https://doi.org/10.1080/10510974.2013.811434
55.
OldfieldJ.StevensonA.OrtizE.HaleyB. (2018). Promoting or suppressing resilience to mental health outcomes in at risk young people: The role of parental and peer attachment and school connectedness. Journal of Adolescence, 64(1), 13–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.01.002
56.
OrthU. (2018). The family environment in early childhood has a long-term effect on self-esteem: A longitudinal study from birth to age 27 years. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 114(4), Article 6. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000143
57.
Padilla-WalkerL. M.NelsonL. J. (2012). Black hawk down? Establishing helicopter parenting as a distinct construct from other forms of parental control during emerging adulthood. Journal of Adolescence, 35(5), 1177–1190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.03.007
58.
PistellaJ.IzzoF.IsolaniS.IovernoS.BaioccoR. (2020). Helicopter mothers and helicopter fathers: Italian adaptation and validation of the helicopter parenting instrument. Psychology Hub, 37(1), 37–46. https://doi.org/10.13133/2724-2943/16900
RyanR. M.DeciE. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), Article 68. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68
61.
SarıçamH. (2014). Psychometric properties of the academic locus of control scale-adolescent form. Elementary Education Online, 13(4), 1135–1144. https://doi.org/10.17051/io.2014.32429
62.
SarıçamH.DuranA.ÇardakM.HalmatovM. (2012). The examination of pre school teacher candidates academic locus of control levels. Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2), 67–74.
63.
SchiffrinH. H.ErchullM. J.SendrickE.YostJ. C.PowerV.SaldanhaE. R. (2019). The effects of maternal and paternal helicopter parenting on the self-determination and well-being of emerging adults. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28(12), 3346–3359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01513-6
64.
SchiffrinH. H.LissM. (2017). The effects of helicopter parenting on academic motivation. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(5), 1472–1480. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0658-z
65.
SchiffrinH. H.LissM.Miles-McLeanH.GearyK. A.ErchullM. J.TashnerT. (2014). Helping or hovering? The effects of helicopter parenting on college students’ well-being. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 23(3), 548–557. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-013-9716-3
66.
SegrinC.GivertzM.SwaitkowskiP.MontgomeryN. (2015). Overparenting is associated with child problems and a critical family environment. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(2), 470–479. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-013-9858-3
67.
SegrinC.WoszidloA.GivertzM.BauerA.TaylorM. M. (2012). The Association Between Overparenting, Parent-Child Communication, and Entitlement and Adaptive Traits in Adult Children. Family Relations, 61, 237–252. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2011.00689.x
68.
SetZ. (2020). The mediating role of inflated sense of self and impulsivity in the relationship between helicopter parenting and psychological symptoms. Archives of Neuropsychiatry, 57(4), Article 318. https://doi.org/10.29399/npa.24942
69.
ShawK. (2017). Hovering or supporting: Do parenting behaviors affect their college-offspring's perseverance? [Doctoral dissertation, Miami University].
70.
ShinM.AdameE. A. (2023). Helicopter parenting and first-semester students’ adjustment to college: A self-determination theory perspective. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 41(2), 372–389. https://doi.org/10.1177/02654075231186443
71.
Şimşir GökalpZ. (2023). Examining the relationships between helicopter parenting, self-control, self-efficacy, and multi-screen addiction among Turkish emerging adults. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 184(4), 229–242. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.2022.2151336
72.
SoenensB.VansteenkisteM. (2010). A theoretical upgrade of the concept of parental psychological control: Proposing new insights on the basis of self-determination theory. Developmental Review, 30(1), 74–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.11.001
73.
SpokasM.HeimbergR. G. (2009). Overprotective parenting, social anxiety, and external locus of control: Cross-sectional and longitudinal relationships. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 33(6), 543–551. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-008-9227-5
74.
SpringerA. E.McQueenA.QuintanillaG.ArrivillagaM.RossM. W. (2009). Reliability and validity of the student perceptions of school cohesion scale in a sample of Salvadoran secondary school students. BMC International Health and Human Rights, 9(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-698X-9-30
75.
StavrulakiE.LiM.GuptaJ. (2021). Perceived parenting styles, academic achievement, and life satisfaction of college students: The mediating role of motivation orientation. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 36(3), 693–717. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-020-00493-2
76.
SteigerJ. H. (2007). Understanding the limitations of global fit assessment in structural equation modeling. Personality and Individual Differences, 42(5), 893–898. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2006.09.017
77.
TabachnickB. G.FidellL. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics. Pearson Education.
TuranM. E.AdamF.KayaA.YıldırımM. (2023). The mediating role of the dark personality triad in the relationship between ostracism and social media addiction in adolescents. Education and Information Technologies, 29(4), 3885–3901. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-12002-1.
80.
UngarM. (2009). Overprotective parenting: Helping parents provide children the right amount of risk and responsibility. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 37(3), 258–271. https://doi.org/10.1080/01926180802534247
81.
UzunK.KaratasZ. (2020). Predictors of academic self efficacy: Intolerance of uncertainty, positive beliefs about worry and academic locus of control. International Education Studies, 13(6), 104–116. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v13n6p104
82.
Van PetegemS.AntoniettiJ. P.Eira NunesC.KinsE.SoenensB. (2020). The relationship between maternal overprotection, adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems, and psychological need frustration: A multi-informant study using response surface analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 49(1), 162–177. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-01126-8
83.
WingaM. A.AgakJ. O.AyereA. M. (2011). The relationship among school adjustment, gender and academic achievement amongst secondary school students in Kisumu District Kenya. Journal of Emerging Trends in Educational Research and Policy Studies, 2(6), 493–497.
84.
WuW.ZhangY.WangY. (2023). Associations between profiles of helicopter parenting and decisional procrastination among Chinese adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 52(6), 1219–1234. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-023-01764-z
85.
YaşinÇ. O.DemirN. (2020). Türkiye’de helikopter ebeveyn sahibi olan y neslinin, aidiyet, yaşam becerisi ve özgüven problemleri. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 7(2), 450–470.
86.
YilmazH. (2020). Türkiyede helikopter ebeveynlik eğilimi ve helikopter ebeveynlerin demografik özellikleri. Sosyal Politika Çalışmaları Dergisi, 20(46), 133–160. https://doi.org/10.21560/spcd.v20i54504.540233
87.
YılmazH. (2019). İyi ebeveyn, çocuğu için her zaman her şeyi yapan ebeveyn değildir: Algılanan Helikopter Ebeveyn Tutum Ölçeği (AHETÖ) geliştirme çalışması. Erken Çocukluk Çalışmaları Dergisi, 3(1), 3–31. https://doi.org/10.24130/eccd-jecs.1967201931114
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
