Second Step is a universal social-emotional learning program designed to decrease antisocial behaviors, increase prosocial behaviors, and increase knowledge about content curriculum. Given the international focus of using Second Step to improve social-emotional skills, it is especially important to provide an updated synthesis on the effect of the intervention. A single-program meta-analysis was completed in order to determine effects of participating in Second Step and to explore moderators of program effectiveness on prosocial and antisocial behavior outcomes as well as knowledge of emotions. Five moderators were explored, including (a) program saturation, (b) dependent variable source, (c) grade range, (d) metro area, and (e) geographical location. A combined total of 18,847 participants were included in the analysis of 27 studies. Results of the current study indicate that Second Step’s impact on students’ knowledge and attitudes of violence and violence prevention is much stronger than on increasing prosocial behavior or reducing antisocial behavior.
BeelmannA.LoselF. (2006) Child social skills training in developmental crime prevention: Effects on antisocial behavior and social competence. Psicothema18: 603–610.
2.
*Beisly, A. (2011). Emotional competence in a pre-kindergarten classroom: Links to social and emotional competence. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 1495027).
3.
*Bogue, H. E. (2011). Impact of a violence prevention curriculum on kindergarteners’ behavior. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 3467043).
4.
*BrownJ.JimersonS.DowdyE.GonzalezV.StewartK. (2012) Assessing the effects of school-wide Second Step implementation in a predominately English language learner, low SES, Latino sample. Psychology in the Schools49: 864–876. doi: 10.1002/pits.21639
5.
CareyJ. C.DimmittC.HatchT. A.LapanR. T.WhistonS. C. (2008) Report of the national panel for evidence-based school counseling: Outcome research coding protocol and evaluation of Student Success Skills and Second Step. Professional School Counseling11: 197–206. doi: 10.5330/PSC.n.2010-11.197
6.
*ClintonA. B.EdstromL.MildonH. A.DavilaL. (2015) Social emotional learning in a guatemalan preschool sample: Does socioeconomic status moderate the effects of a school-based prevention program?School Psychology International36: 18–35. doi: 10.1177/0143034314559868
7.
Committee for Children (1991) Second Step: A violence prevention curriculum; Preschool-kindergarten, Seattle, WA: Author.
8.
Committee for Children (1992a) Second Step: A violence prevention curriculum; Grades 1–3, Seattle, WA: Author.
9.
Committee for Children (1992b) Second Step: A violence prevention curriculum; Grades 4–5, Seattle, WA: Author.
10.
Committee for Children (1997) Second Step: A violence prevention curriculum; Middle school/junior high, Seattle, WA: Author.
11.
Committee for Children (2002) Review of research: The importance of teaching social-emotional skills, Seattle, WA: Author.
12.
Committee for Children (2008) Second Step middle school complete review of research, Seattle, WA: Author.
13.
Committee for Children (2011) Second Step: A violence prevention curriculum, Seattle, WA: Author.
14.
*Cooke, M.B., Ford, J., Levine, J., Bourke, C., Newell, L., & Lipidus, G. (2007). The effects of city-wide implementation of ‘Second Step’ on elementary school students: Prosocial and aggressive behaviors. Journal of Primary Prevention, 28(2), 93–115. doi: 10.1007/s10935-007-0080-1.
15.
DomitrovichC.E.DurlakJ.A.StaleyK.C.WeissbergR.P. (2017) Social-emotional competence: An essential factor for promoting positive adjustment and reducing risk in school children. Child Development88: 408–416. doi: 10.1111/cdev.12739
16.
DurlakJ.A. (2009) How to select, calculate, and interpret effect sizes. Journal of Pediatric Psychology34: 917–928. doi: 10.1093/jpepsy/jsp004
17.
DurlakJ.A.DymnickiA.B.TaylorR.D.WeissbergR.P.SchellingerK.B. (2011) The impact of enhancing students’ social and emotional learning: A meta-analysis of school-based universal interventions. Child Development82: 405–432. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01564.x
18.
DurlakJ.A.WeissbergR.P.PachanM. (2010) A meta-analysis of after-school programs that seek to promote personal and social skills in children and adolescents. American Journal of Community Psychology45: 294–309. doi: 10.1007/s10464-010-9300-6
19.
DuvalS.TweedieR. (2000) Trim and fill: a simple funnel‐plot–based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta‐analysis. Biometrics56: 455–463. doi: 10.1111/j.0006-341X.2000.00455.x
20.
*EdwardsD.HuntM.MeyersJ.GroggK.R.JarrettO. (2005) Acceptability and student outcomes of a violence prevention curriculum. The Journal of Primary Prevention26: 401–418. doi: 10.1007/s10935-005-0002-z
21.
*EspelageD.L.LowS.PolaninJ.R.BrownE.C. (2013) The impact of a middle school program to reduce aggression, victimization, and sexual violence. Journal of Adolescent Health53: 180–186. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.02.021
EspelageD.L.RoseC.A.PolaninJ.R. (2016) Social emotional learning program to reduce bullying, fighting, and victimization among middle school students with disabilities. Remedial and Special Education36: 299–311. doi: 10.1177/0741932514564564
24.
Farrell, A. D., Mehari, K. R., Kramer-Kuhn, A. M., Mays, S. A., & Sullivan, T. N. (2015). A qualitative analysis of factors influencing middle school students' use of skills taught by a violence prevention curriculum. Journal of School Psychology, 53, 179–194. doi: 10.1016/j/jsp.2015.03.001.
25.
FarrellA. D.MehariK.MaysS.SullivanT. N.LeA. (2015) Participants’ perceptions of a violence prevention curriculum for middle school students: Was it relevant and useful?The Journal of Primary Prevention36: 227–246. doi: 10.1007/s10935-015-0391-6
26.
FarringtonD.P.TtofiM.M. (2009) School-based programs to reduce bullying and victimization. The Campbell Collaboration6: 1–149.
27.
FergusonC. J.BrannickM. T. (2012) Publication bias in psychological science: Prevalence, methods for identifying and controlling, and implications for the use of meta-analyses. Psychological Methods17: 120–128. doi: 10.1037/a0024445
FlayB. R.BiglanA.BoruchR. F.CastroF. G.GottfredsonD.KellamS.et al.(2005) Standards of evidence: Criteria for efficacy, effectiveness and dissemination. Prevention Science6: 151–175. doi: 10.1007/s11121-005-5553-y
30.
FreyK.S.HirschsteinM.K.GuzzoB.A. (2000) Second Step: Preventing aggression by promoting social competence. Journal of Emotional and behavioral disorders8: 102–149. doi: 10.1177/106342660000800206
31.
*FreyK.S.NolenS.B.Van Schoiack EdstromL.HirschsteinM.K. (2005) Effects of a school-based social-emotional competence program: Linking children’s goals, attributions, and behavior. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology26: 171–200. doi: 10.1016/j.appdev.2004.12.002
32.
GreenbergM.T.AbenavoliR. (2017) Universal Interventions: Fully exploring their impacts and potential to produce population-level impacts. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness10: 40–67. doi: 10.1080/19345747.2016.1246632
33.
Greenberg, M. T., Weissberg, R. P., O’Brien, M. U., Zins, J. E., Fredericks, L., Resnik, H., & Elias, M. J. (2003). Enhancing school-based prevention and youth development through coordinated social, emotional, and academic learning. American Psychologist, 58, 466–474. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.58.6-7.466.
34.
*GrossmanD.C.NeckermanH.J.KoepsellT.D.LiuP.Y.AsherK.N.BelandK. (1997) Effectiveness of a violence prevention curriculum among children in elementary school. Journal of the American Medical Association277: 1605–1611. doi: 10.1001/jama.1997.03540440039030
35.
*Gruber, E. A. (2007). Effects of social and emotional skills training on sixth grade students’ knowledge of prosocial skills and their attitude toward violence. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 3292238).
36.
*GrummM.HeinS.FingerleM. (2013) Improving prevention programs: First results on the relation between subjectively perceived levels of usefulness and social competencies. European Journal of Psychology of Education28: 121–131. doi: 10.1007/s10212-012-0105-x
37.
*Hart, S.R., Dowdy, E., Eklund, K., Renshaw, T.L., Jimerson, S.R., Jones, C., & Earhart, J. Jr (2009). A controlled study assessing the effects of the impulse control and problem solving unit of the Second Step curriculum. California School Psychologist, 14, 105–110. Retrieved from http://education.ucsb.edu/school-psychology/CSP-Journal/index.html.
38.
HedgesL. V. (1981) Distribution theory for Glass’s estimator of effect size and related estimators. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics6: 107–128. doi: 10.3102/10769986006002107
39.
HedgesL. V.TiptonE.JohnsonM. C. (2010) Robust variance estimation in meta-regression with dependent effect size estimates. Research Synthesis Methods1: 39–65. doi: 10.1002/jrsm.5
40.
HigginsJ.ThompsonS. G. (2004) Controlling the risk of spurious findings from meta‐regression. Statistics in medicine23: 1663–1682. doi: 10.1002/sim.1752
41.
HolsenI.IversonA.C.SmithB. (2009) Universal social competence programme in school: Does it work for children with low socio-economic background?Advances in School Mental Health Promotion2(2): 51–60. doi: 10.1080/1754730X.2009.9715704
42.
*HolsenI.SmithB.H.FreyK.S. (2008) Outcomes of the social competence program Second Step in Norwegian elementary schools. School Psychology International29: 71–88. doi: 10.1177/0143034307088504
*HusseyD. L.FlanneryD. J. (2007) Implementing and evaluating school-based primary prevention programs and the importance of differential effects on outcomes. Journal of School Violence6: 117–134. doi: 10.1300/J202v06n02_07
45.
JanuaryA.M.CaseyR.J.PaulsonD. (2011) A meta-analysis of classroom-wide interventions to build social skills: Do they work?School Psychology Review40: 242–256.
46.
JonesS.M.BouffardS.M. (2012) Social policy report: Social emotional learning in schools from programs to strategies. Sharing Child and Youth Development Knowledge26(4): 3–22.
47.
KorpershoekH.HarmsT.de BoerH.van KuijkM.DoolardS. (2016) A meta-analysis of the effects of classroom management strategies and classroom management programs on students’ academic, behavioral, emotional, and motivational outcomes. Review of Educational Research86: 643–680. doi: 10.3102/0034654315626799
48.
LarsenT.SamdalO. (2007) Implementing Second Step: Balancing fidelity and program adaptation. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation1: 1–29. doi: 10.1080/10474410709336588
49.
LarsenT.SamdalO. (2008) Facilitating the implementation and sustainability of Second Step. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research52: 187–204. doi: 10.1080/00313830801915820
50.
LarsenT.SamdalO. (2011) The importance of teachers’ feelings of self-efficacy in developing their pupils social and emotional learning: A Norwegian study of teacher’s reactions to the Second Step program. School Psychology International33: 631–645. doi: 10.1177/0143034311312848
51.
*Lipschutz, B. D., (2010). The use of digital storytelling to improve the effectiveness of social and conflict resolution skill training for elementary students (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 3408729).
LowS.van RyzinM.J.BrownE.C.SmithB.H.HaggertyK.P. (2013) Engagement matters: Lessons from assessing classroom implementation of Steps to Respect: A bullying prevention program over a one-year period. Prevention Science15: 165–176.
54.
*McCabe, L.A. (2000). Violence prevention in early childhood: Implementing the Second Step curriculum in child care and head start classrooms. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 9941173).
55.
McCartneyK.RosenthalR. (2000) Effect size, practical importance, and social policy for children. Child Development71: 173–180. doi: 10.1111/1467-8624.00131
56.
*McMahonS. D.WashburnJ. J. (2003) Violence prevention: An evaluation of program effects with urban African American students. Journal of Primary Prevention24: 43–62. doi: 10.1023/A:1025075617356
57.
*McMahonS. D.WashburnJ.FelixE. D.YakinJ.ChildreyG. (2000) Violence prevention: Program effects on urban preschool and kindergarten children. Applied and Preventive Psychology9: 271–281. doi: 10.1016/S0962-1849(00)80004-9
58.
Moy, G. & Hazen, A. (in press). Systematic review of the Second Step program. Journal of School Psychology.
59.
*NeaceW. P.MuñozM. A. (2012) Pushing the boundaries of education: Evaluating the impact of Second Step: A violence prevention curriculum with psychosocial and non-cognitive measures. Child and Youth Services33: 46–69. doi: 10.1080/0145935X.2012.665324
60.
*OcasioK.Van AlstD.KoivunenJ.HuangC. C.AllegraC. (2015) Promoting preschool mental health: Results of a 3 year primary prevention strategy. Journal of Child and Family Studies24: 1800–1808. doi: 10.1007/s10826-014-9983-7
61.
*Osmondson, E. L. (2000). An evaluation of Second Step: A social skills training curriculum for violence prevention. (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 9994491).
62.
Payton, J., Weissberg, R.P., Durlak, J.A., Dymnicki, A.B., Taylor, R.D., Schellinger, K.B., & Pachan, M. (2008). The positive impact of social and emotional learning for the kindergarten to eighth-grade students: Findings from three scientific reviews. Chicago, IL: Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning.
63.
PiantaR. C.EliasM. J.ZinsJ. E.GraczykP. A.WeissbergR. P. (2003) Implementation, Sustainability, and Scaling Up of Social-Emotional and Academic Innovations in Public Schools. School Psychology Review32: 303–319.
64.
PigottT. D. (2012) Advances in meta-analysis, New York, NY: Springer.
65.
PolaninJ. R.SnilstveitB. (2016) Campbell methods policy note on converting between effect sizes (Version 1.1, updated December 2016), Oslo, Norway: The Campbell Collaboration.. doi: 10.4073/cmpn.2016.3
66.
ProctorE.SilmereH.RaghavanR.HovmandP.AaronsG.BungerA.et al.(2011) Outcomes for implementation research: Conceptual distinctions, measurement challenges, and research agenda. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research38: 65–76. doi: 10.1007/s10488-010-0319-7
67.
*Rosen, J. (2013). Evaluating the effectiveness of the ‘Second Step’ violence prevention curriculum in developing social-emotional competence among second grade students. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 3570531).
68.
RothsteinH. R.SuttonA. J.BorensteinM. (2006) Publication bias in meta-analysis: Prevention, assessment and adjustments, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons.
69.
*RubyA.DoolittleE. (2010) Efficacy of schoolwide programs to promote social and character development and reduce problem behavior in elementary school children. Report from the Social and Character Development Research Program. NCER 2011–2001. National Center for Education Research. Journal of Research in Character Education, 7.
70.
*SchickA.CierpkaM. (2005) Faustlos: Evaluation of a curriculum to prevent violence in elementary schools. Applied and Preventive Psychology11: 157–165. doi: 10.1016/j.appsy.2005.05.001
71.
SkladM.DiekstraR.de RitterM.BenJ.GravesteijnC. (2012) Effectiveness of school-based universal social, emotional, and behavioral programs: Do they enhance students’ development in the area of skill, behavior and adjustment?Psychology in the Schoos49: 892–909. doi: 10.1002/pits.21641
72.
SongF.HooperL.LokeY. K. (2013) Publication bias: What is it? How do we measure it? How do we avoid it?Open Access Journal of Clinical Trials5: 71–81.
73.
*SpragueJ.WalkerH.GollyA. (2001) Translating research into effective practice: the effects of a universal staff and student intervention on indicators of discipline and school safety. Education and Treatment of Children24: 495–511. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/42900505.
74.
Tanner-SmithE. E.TiptonE.PolaninJ. R. (2016) Handling complex meta-analytic data structures using robust variance estimates: A tutorial in R. Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology2: 85–112. doi: 10.1007/s40865-016-0026-5
75.
*TaubJ. (2001) Evaluation of the Second Step violence prevention program at a rural elementary school. School Psychology Review31: 186–200.
76.
TaylorR. D.OberleE.DurlakJ. A.WeissbergR. P. (2017) Promoting positive youth development through school‐based social and emotional learning interventions: A meta‐analysis of follow‐up effects. Child Development88: 1156–1171. doi: 10.1111/cdev.12864
77.
TtofiM.M.FarringtonD.P. (2011) Effectiveness of school-based programs to reduce bullying: A systematic and meta-analytic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology7: 27–56. doi: 10.1080/1754730x.2008.9715730
78.
*Tynes-Jones, J.M. (2006). A social skills program in third grade classrooms. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 3234979).
Weare, K., & Nind, M. (2011). Promoting mental health of children and adolescents through schools and school based interventions. DataPrev Project: Report of Work Package, 3.
81.
WeissbergR.P.DurlakJ.A.DomitrovichC.E.GullottaT.P. (2015) Social and emotional learning: Past, present, and future. In: DurlakJ.A.DomitrovichC.E.WeissbergR.P.GullottaT.P. (eds) Handbook of social and emotional learning: Research and practice, New York, NY: Guilford, pp. 3–19.
82.
WilsonD.B.GottfredsonD.C.NajakaS.S. (2001) School-based prevention of problem behaviors: A meta-analysis. Journal of Quantitative Criminology17: 247–272. doi: 10.1023/A:1011050217296
83.
WilsonS. J.LipseyM. W. (2007) School-based interventions for aggressive and disruptive behavior: Update of a meta-analysis. American journal of Preventive Medicine33: 130–143. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2007.04.011
84.
WilsonS.H.LipseyM.W.DerzonJ. (2003) The effects of school-based intervention programs on aggressive behavior: A meta-analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology71: 136–149. doi: 10.1037/0022-006x.71.1.136
85.
ZoogmanS.GoldbergS.B.HoytW.T.MillerL. (2014) Mindfulness interventions with youth: A meta-analysis. Mindfulness6: 290–302. doi: 10.1007/s12671-013-0260-4
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
