Travelers' descriptions of colonial and tropical towns were frequently dismissive. Asking how residents in such towns understood the streets they knew offers alternative perspectives. The contrasts between European expectations and local practices were particularly abrupt in Jamaica, where its English conquerors had reused the former Spanish capital. Alongside their familiarity with creole architecture, residents oriented themselves by where streets led to and the people who lived on them. Recognizing inhabitants' mental maps offers a counterbalance to the outsiders' “tourist gaze” that continues to shape discussions of cities in poor countries.
Anthony Trollope, The West Indies and the Spanish Main, 2nd ed. (London, 1860), 15-16, 18, 20, 22.
2.
Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London, 1992), 5, 4. On "mental maps" and urban knowledge, Peter Gould and Rodney White, Mental Maps (1974, 2nd ed., Boston, 1986), 11-25; also Cynthia Wall, "`At Shakespeare's-Head, Over-Against Catherine-Street in the Strand': Forms of Address in London Streets," in Tim Hitchcock and Heather Shore, eds., The Streets of London: From the Great Fire to the Great Stink (London, 2003), 10-26; and Allan Pred, Lost Words and Lost Worlds: Modernity and the Language of Everyday Life in Late Nineteenth-Century Stockholm (Cambridge, 1990).
3.
B.W. Higman, "Urban Slavery in the British Caribbean," in Elizabeth M. Thomas-Hope, ed., Perspectives on Caribbean Regional Identity (University of Liverpool, Centre for Latin American Studies, Monograph Series, 11, Liverpool, 1984), 39; and John Urry, The Tourist Gaze: Leisure and Travel in Contemporary Societies (London, 1990).
4.
Peter Guillery , "Inventory and Documentation of Historic Monuments in England: Recording the `Minor Heritage,'" Transactions of the Ancient Monuments Society41 ( 1997): 85.
5.
Urry, The Tourist Gaze, 2.
6.
[John Rippingham ], "The Caymanas Estates and Twickenham Estate, in the Parish of St. Catherine," Jamaica Journal1 (1818): 313.
7.
Alison McCleery , "So Many Glasgows: From `Personality of Place' to `Positionality in Space and Time,'" Scottish Geographical Journal120 (2004): 10.
8.
James Robertson , "Jamaican Archival Resources for Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century Atlantic History," Slavery and Abolition14 (2001): 109-40.
9.
There were short breaks in 1662-1663, when Port Royal housed the Assembly, and in 1755-1758, when the "Seat of Government" was briefly transferred to Kingston; James Robertson, "Architectures of Confidence? Spanish Town, Jamaica, 1655-1792," in Barbara Arciszewska and Elizabeth McKellar, eds., Reconstructing British Classicism: New Approaches to Eighteenth-Century Architecture (Aldershot, 2004), 227-58. For Port Royal's and then Kingston's roles within Jamaica's internal markets, Nuala Zahedieh, "`The Wickedest City in the World': Port Royal, Commercial Hub of the Seventeenth-Century Caribbean," in Verene Shepherd, ed., Working Slavery, Pricing Freedom: Perspectives from the Caribbean, Africa and the African Diaspora (Kingston, 2002), 3-20.
10.
Dora P. Crouch, Daniel J. Garr, and Axel I. Mundigo, Spanish City Planning in North America (Cambridge, MA , 1982); also Alfredo Castillero-Calvo, "The City in the Hispanic Caribbean, 1492-1650," in Pieter C. Emmer and German Carrera Damas, eds., New Societies: The Caribbeanin the Long Sixteenth Century (General History of the Caribbean, 2, Basingstoke, 1999), 201-46; and Richard Morse, "The Urban Development of Colonial Latin America," in Leslie Bethell, ed., Colonial Latin America (Cambridge History of Latin America, 2, Cambridge, 1984), 66-81. The policy's local application, James Robertson, "Location! Location! Location! Placing Jamaica's New Urban Centre, 1534," in Leslie-Gail Atkinson et al., eds., Archaeological Society of Jamaica Collected Symposium Papers (Oxford, forthcoming).
11.
James Robertson, "Inherited Cityscapes: Spanish Town, Jamaica," in Gunilla Malm, ed., Towards an Archaeology of Buildings: Contexts and Concepts (British Archaeological Reports, International Series, 1186, Oxford, 2003), 89-104.
12.
Aubrey N. Newman, "The Sephardim of the Caribbean," in R. D. Barnett and W. M. Schwab, eds., The Sephardi Heritage: Essays on the History and Cultural Contribution of the Jews of Spain and Portugal, vol. 2, The Western Sephardim (Grendon, 1989), 456-57. The quotation, Edward Long, The History of Jamaica, 3 vols . (London, 1774), II, 18; Long registered as a voter in St. Catherine's parish in right of a house in Spanish Town belonging to his wife; Spanish Town, Jamaican Archives (henceforth, J.A.), 2/2/27, St. Catherine, List of Freeholders, 1757-1840, f. 34, October 27, 1763.
13.
Erna Brodber , A Study of Yards in the City of Kingston (Institute of Social and Economic Research, Working Paper, 9, Kingston, 1975), 1-35; H. V. Ormsby Marshall, "Eagle House," Jamaican Historical Society Bulletin3 (1964): 260-63; the mermaid, Clinton Black, Tales of Old Jamaica (Kingston, 1966), 33-38; and J.A., 7/13/273, May Jeffrey-Smith, "Current Superstitious Beliefs, Rites and Customs in Jamaica: A Study in folk lore," [1958], "Ghosts and Duppies and Obeah Practices," "Ribba Mumma cont:d," 1-3; also, James Robertson, Gone Is the Ancient Glory, Spanish Town, Jamaica, 1534-2000 (Kingston , 2005), 262-64.
14.
Long, History of Jamaica, II, 41; scrumping fruit, G. F. J[udah], Old Saint Jago (Kingston, 1896), 49.
15.
James Robertson, "Late Seventeenth-Century Spanish Town, Jamaica, Building an English City on Spanish Foundations," Early American Studies 6, no. 2 (2008): 347-358, 365, 370, 381-390. English streets, Peter Borsay, "Early Modern Urban Landscapes, 1540-1800," in Philip Waller, ed., The English Urban Landscape (Oxford, 2000), 99-124; and Michael Reed, "The Urban Landscape, 1540-1700," in Peter Clark, ed., The Cambridge Urban History of Britain, vol. 2, 1540-1840 (Cambridge, 2000), 289-313; their relocation to British America, Elizabeth Milroy, "`For the Like Uses, as the Moore-Fields': The Politics of Penn's Squares," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 130 (2006): 257-82.
16.
Don Pedro Colon de Portugal y Castro, Duke of Veragua and La Vega, The Columbus Petition Document for the Island of Jamaica-1672, trans. Jeremy Lawrence (Kingston, 1992), H; Francisco Morales Padrón, Spanish Jamaica, trans. Patrick Bryan (Kingston, 2003), 252.
Or none that lasted. In the 1660s some surveys cite Windsor Street, named after the first governor Charles II sent to the new royal colony, while Raymond's Row commemorated the instigator of a would-be mutiny against the Cromwellian governor. Neither name remained in use by the 1670s.
19.
I am grateful to Linda Sturtz for this point. Describing similar colonial-era naming patterns in Connecticut, George R. Stewart, Names in the Land: A Historical Account of Place-Naming in the United States ( New York, 1945), 125.
20.
The street near Colonel Ballard's property, J.A. 1B/11/2/5, Plat Book, St. Catherine, 1, f. 69, 28 February 1686/7, survey for John Jones; the late Colonel, ibid. f. 62, May 28, 1695, survey for Peter Haywood; for Cornet Bourden, ibid. f. 103, December 23, 1664, survey for William Mosely; "John Whiteing now Husband of the Relict of Hanie Hamon, Trumpeter . . . ," 1B/11/2/6, Plat Book, St. Catherine, 2, f. 106, survey for John Whiteing, June 2, 1664.
21.
I explore this phenomenon at greater length in "Late Seventeenth-Century Spanish Town." 347-390.
22.
Discussing comparable seasonal "Public Times" on Virginia's Jamestown and Williamsburg, James O'Mara, An Historical Geography of Urban System Development: Tidewater Virginia in the Eighteenth Century (Geographical Monographs, 13, Downsview, Ontario, 1983), 181-93; and Carl Bridenbaugh, Seat of Empire: The Political Role of Eighteenth-Century Williamsburg (Williamsburg in America, 1, Williamsburg, VA, 1950, n.e. 1958), 18-41, 54-71.
23.
Leslie, A New History of Jamaica, 26-27; [George Marie Butel-Dumont], Historie et Commerce des Antilles Angloises. . . . (Paris, 1758), 80. Estimating the colony's prosperity, Trevor Burnard, "`Prodigious Riches': The Wealth of Jamaica before the American Revolution," Economic History Review 2nd ser 54 (2001): 506-24.
24.
London, British Library, King's Ms. 213, [Lord Adam Gordon], "Diary of An English Officer . . . in North America, 1764-1765," ff. 9, 22v; John Atkins, A Voyage to Guinea, Brasil, and the West-Indies (1735, 2nd ed. London, 1737), 234.
25.
Long, History of Jamaica, II, 4-5. 18. T. A. L. Concannon, "Our Architectural Heritage: Houses of the 18th and 19th Century with Special Reference to Spanish Town," Jamaica Journal 4 (1970): 23-28; Matthew Mulcahy, Hurricanes and Society in the British Greater Caribbean, 1624-1783 (Baltimore, 2006), 132-40; also, James Robertson, "Jamaican Architectures before Georgian," Winterthur Portfolio 38 (2001): 73-95. On non-standard building in eighteenth-century London, Peter Guillery, The Small House in Eighteenth-Century London (New Haven, CT, 2004), passim.
26.
Michael Pawson and David Buisseret, Port Royal, Jamaica (1974, 2nd ed., Kingston, 2000), 14; J. G. Young, "Who Planned Kingston?" Jamaican Historical Review 1 (1946): 144-53. The quotations, David Buisseret, ed. and trans., "A Frenchman Looks at Jamaica in 1706," Jamaica Journal 2, no. 3 (1968): 7-8; Atkins, A Voyage, 234.
27.
Robertson, Gone Is the Ancient Glory, 67-68; Trevor Burnard, "`The Countrie Continues Sicklie': White Mortality in Jamaica, 1655-1780," Social History of Medicine 12 (1999): 45-72, also, Wilma R. Bailey, "The Geography of Fevers in Early Jamaica," Jamaican Historical Review 10 (1973): 23-31.
28.
Pawson and Buisseret, Port Royal, 14; tracing a Londoner who migrated to Port Royal via Bridgetown, Donny L. Hamilton, "Simon Benning, Pewterer of Port Royal," in Barbara J. Little, ed., Text-Aided Archaeology (Boca Raton, FL, 1992), 39-53; on the reuse of street names from London in Port Royal, James Robertson, "Stuart London and the Idea of a Royal Capital City," Renaissance Studies 15 (2001): 57.
29.
J.A. 1B/11/24/48, Powers of Attorney, 1787-1788, f. 24v., March 17, 1785, Dorcas and Henry Hains to Stephen Cook. On Kingston and its early layout, Wilma A. Bailey, "Kingston 1692-1845: A Colonial City," Ph.D. thesis, University of the West Indies, Mona (Mona, 1974), 80-103; also Colin G. Clarke, Kingston, Jamaica: Urban Development and Social Change, 1692-2002 (1975, 2nd ed., Kingston, 2006), 16-18; Trevor Burnard, "`The Grand Mart of the Island': The Economic Function of Kingston, Jamaica in the Mid-Eighteenth Century," in Monteith and Richards, Jamaica in Slavery and Freedom, 225-41; and J. G. Young, "The Founding of Kingston," in W. Adolphe Roberts, ed., The Capitals of Jamaica (Kingston, 1955), 38-47.
30.
The same basic framework organizes J.A. 2/6/1, Kingston Vestry Minutes, January 1744-January 1748/9, May 8, 1745, Kingston Parish and Barracking Taxes and ibid. November 4, 1745, Kingston Poll Tax; 2/6/102. Kingston Parochial Tax Roll, 1774-1780 (unfoliated), 1774 list, and 2/6/105, Kingston Poll Tax, 1792-1805, ff. 1-46.
31.
J.A. 2/6/102. Kingston Parochial Tax Roll, 1774-1780, arrears are listed at end of each year's accounts. Legally, the system was regularized still further, as individual lots had numbers which continued to be cited in some title deeds into the 1750s, though these were not used in any residents' descriptions I have seen. For lot numbers, Spanish Town, Island Records Office (henceforth, I.R.O.), Deeds, o.s. 142, f. 41, October 15, 1750, Charles Long to Paul Phipps, lot 1037. I am grateful to Robert Barker for discussing the divergence between this lawyerly grid and the identifying figures cited on the mid-eighteenth-century engraved map of Kingston.
32.
Marly; or, A Planter's Life in Jamaica, ed. Karina Williamson (1828, n.e. Oxford, 2005), 9.
33.
"Comparative View of Certain Regulations and Customs, Subsisting of Charlestown, South Carolina, and in Kingston, Jamaica," Columbian Magazine 2 (1797): 634.
34.
Long, History of Jamaica, II, 4-5.
35.
Discussed in Linda Sturtz, "Proprietors and Tenants: People of Free Condition, Spanish Town, 1754," Text & Testimony Collective Conference, "City Life in Caribbean History: Celebrating Bridgetown," University of the West Indies, Cave Hill, Barbados (2003).
36.
J.A. 2/2/22, St. Catherine's Vestry Book, 1771-1774 (unfoliated). The volume includes a Town Precinct Deficiency Roll from the 20th March 1772 to the 20th of June following, a Roll of Taxes on Houses tenanted and not Rated, Town Precinct Parish Tax Roll for 1773, Poll Tax Roll 1773, and a St. Catherine Street Tax Roll for 1773. These administrative categories all contrast with Kingston, whose rate-collectors only dealt with the town itself.
37.
Robertson, Gone Is the Ancient Glory, 84-85.
38.
Sturtz, "Proprietors and Tenants"; J.A. 1B/11/2/6, f. 24, survey for John Paris, April 28, 1692; 1B/11/2/5, f. 9, January 9, 1689, survey for Thomas Goddard; Butel-Dumont, Historie et Commerce, 80.
39.
J.A. 2/2/27, f. 160, November 25, 1831, William Gordon, which is signed by the vestry clerk. References are to the pencil foliation, the date of the entry, and the name of the elector. In the 1820s these election laws shaped an attempt to register some Jewish property holders' claims to vote as part of a wider campaign to win the vote for Jews in Jamaica. For a partisan contemporary description, "A Gentleman of Kingston," Narrative of the Proceedings of the Jews, in Their Attempt to Establish Their Right to the Elective Franchise in Jamaica . . . (Belfast, 1828), discussed in Holly Snyder, "Rules, Rights and Redemption: The Negotiation of Jewish Status in British Atlantic Port Towns, 1740-1831," Jewish History 20 (2006): 147-70. Considering one governor's decision to dissolve the Assembly early, S. G. Checkland, The Elgins, 1766-1917: A Tale of Aristocrats, Proconsuls and Their Wives (Aberdeen, 1988), 111-12. The "men of the vote" phrase is from a verse election address from 1839, "To the Freeholders of Jamaica," Kingston, National Library of Jamaica (henceforth, N.L.J.), Ms. 61, "Jack Jingle," The Omnibus of Jamaica Scrap Book: A Thing of Shreds and Patches, f. 20.
40.
On land surveys, Martin Brückner, The Geographic Revolution in Early America: Maps, Literacy, and National Identity (Chapel Hill, NC, 2006), 16-50; and Barry Higman, Jamaica Surveyed: Plantation Maps and Plans of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries (Kingston, 1988), 19-29. For the possibilities of using urban deeds to recover urban landscapes, Garrett Power, Parceling Out Land in Baltimore 1632-1796 (Baltimore, 1994, reprinting a two-part article from the Maryland Historical Magazine, 87 [1992]: 453-66 and 88 [1993]: 151-80); Vanessa Harding, "Reconstructing London before the Great Fire," London Topographical Register 25 (1985): 1-12; and Derek Keene, "The Use of Documentary Sources in Studying the Topography and Archaeology Of Medieval London," Lübecker Schriften zur Archäologie und Kulturgeschichte 7 (1983): 77-84. Three case studies, idem. Cheapside before the Great Fire (London, 1985); idem. "New Discoveries at the Hanseatic Steelyard in London," Hansische Geschichtsblätter 107 (1989): 15-23; and Tony Dyson, Documents and Archaeology: The Medieval London Waterfront, Museum of London, Annual Archaeology Lecture 1 (London, 1989). The title deeds for some properties could be antiques in their own right. One entry made in 1761 cites "Sir Thomas Modyford," governor of Jamaica nearly a century before, as a neighbor. J.A. 2/2/27, f. 25, January 23, 1761, Archibald Sinclare. It was a rural pen.
41.
Thus Alexander Graham claimed his right to vote as the owner of "a house and a store in the Town of St. Iago de la Vega, the House now Tenanted by Robert Rickards Esq, Attorney General." J.A. 2/2/27, f. 5, August 20, 1757.
42.
J.A. 2/2/27, f. 136, April 29, 1826, Robert Page; f. 151, January 4, 1830, George Street; ibid. f. 2, August 10, 1757, Doctor Thomas Prewyne; also, for a "house joyned to the house of Doctor Matthew Gregory," f. 12, October 8, 1757, Thomas Doly, and a House "formerly in the Possession of Doctor Samuel Worth," f. 28, June 14, 1762, Thomas Gordon. The Dr. Lee association remained for another sixty years and is marked on a manuscript plan of the town made in 1836. N.L.J. St. C. 144, August 1836, A Plan of the town of St. Jago de la Vega surveyed by desire of the directors of the Sligo Water Company by Francis J. French. The house stood at an open space at the north end of King Street, so at a road juncture on the town's northern edge.
43.
J.A. 2/2/27, f. 28, December 6, 1762, Francis Nally.
44.
I.R.O. Deeds, o.s. 142, ff. 17v-19, January 11, 1750/1, Benedict Waag to Samuel Gabay.
45.
J.A. 2/2/27, f. 1. [1757], unidentified description.
46.
N.L.J. St.C.154, "Lots of Footland in Saint Jago de la Vega," 1748/9. This is probably the Moses Martins buried in Spanish Town in 1768, Richard D. Barnett and Philip Wright, The Jews of Jamaica: Tombstone Inscriptions, 1663-1880, ed. Oron Yoffe (Jerusalem, 1997), 85, no. 1002. "The French," J.A. 2/2/27, f. 3, August 17, 1757, Francis Wright; f. 4, August 18, 1757, Henry James; f. 8, September 29, 1757, Thomas Perkins; f. 14, November 4, 1757, Daniel Pended.
47.
Michael Craton, "The Real Sir Charles Price," Jamaica Journal 4, no. 4 (1970): 10-14; the rat, Philip Henry Gosse, A Naturalist's Sojourn in Jamaica (London, 1851), 445, and, showing the story's wider currency, Marly, 47-48. The gate, J.A. 2/2/27, f. 47, December 24, 1766, William Jones. Otherwise, "before the door of the hon[ora]bl[e] Rose Fuller Esq.," f. 4, August 18, 1757, Henry James; "a street leading from before the door of George Vodry deceased," f. 6, August 25, 1757, William Bonny.
48.
J.A. 2/2/27, f. 26, February 6, 1761, John Thompson; cited as a "street before Henriques and Mrs. King", N.L.J. St. C. 95, n.d. 18th century, A Sketch of lands in Spanish Town. Deleon, J.A. 2/2/27, f. 152, Philip Redwood and Chaney Hamilton, January 5, 1831.
49.
J.A. 2/2/27, f. 27, October 5, 1761, Thomas Edwards. A later use, f. 29, March 2, 1763, John Diamonds, describes the same property.
50.
The New Market, J.A. 2/2/27, f. 1. [1757]; f. 17, May 13, 1758, John Farquhar; "the Negro Market," f. 6, September 23, 1757, Merchant Tubb; the old Market, f. 2. August 16, 1757, Joseph Curtis; f. 3, August 17, 1757, Francis Wright; f. 4, August 18, 1757, Henry James; f. 10, October 4, 1757, William Matthews; f. 17, June 1, 1758, Timothy Penny; f. 29, March 8, 1763, Ballard Beckford; f. 36, April 23, 1764, Davis Vale; f. 37, September 13, 1764, Doctor James Sales; f. 40, June 25, 1765, Jacob Hill.
51.
The Beef Market, J.A. 2/2/27, f. 40, June 29, 1765, Elie Reynaud; "the old Butchers Market" and "the Old Negro Market," f. 35, April 23, 1764, Davis Vale.
52.
Both "New Roads" are shown in N.L.J. St. C. 144, August 1836, A Plan of the Town of St. Jago De La Vega, Surveyed . . . by Francis J. French. The southern road's construction followed the terms set out in "An Act to consolidate the highway laws of this island," 5 William IV c. 29, December 20, 1834, J.A. 2/2/28, Road Board St. Catherine, Minutes, 1873-77 (unfoliated), February 13, 1874, D.D. Soares to Custos Mackinnon and Members of the Road Board.
53.
J.A. 2/2/27, f. 159, November 7, 1831, Elias Melhado, Alexander Joseph Lindo and Abraham Lopes. I am grateful to Holly Snyder for discussing this point with me.
54.
J.A. 2/2/27, f. 143, January 14, 1830, Samuel Rennalls; on the building projects, Robertson, Gone Is the Ancient Glory, 142-150.
55.
For "the Street leading aback of the Court house," J.A. 2/2/27, f. 164, June 25, 1832, John William Byles, Nathaniel Byles and Benjamin Lyon; f. 151, December 17, 1830, Adam Warren; f. 153, January 8, 1831, John Sadler; f. 163, May 21, 1832, William Morgan; f. 166, September 5, 1832, Anthony Austin.
56.
In 1814 a survey of a particular property not only marked "The Barrack Wall," still a very substantial structure, but also "A street leading along the Barrack Wall" running east-west, at right angles to which were "A Street leading from the Barracks Wall" and "The Street leading from the Front of the Barracks to the Old Negro Market", N.L.J. St. C, 109, Land Belonging to Mr. Burrows, August 15, 1814.
57.
J.A. 2/2/27, f. 7, September 23, 1757, Merchant Tubb.
58.
Daniel Lord Smail, Imaginary Cartographies: Possession and Identity in Late Medieval Marseilles (Ithaca, NY, 2000 ), 87-88.
59.
Seymour Drescher, "Public Opinion and the Destruction of British Colonial Slavery," in James Walvin, ed., Slavery and British Society 1776-1846 (Basingstoke, 1982), 22-48, 216-24; B. W. Higman, "The Colonial Congress of 1831," in Brian L. Moore and Swithin R. Wilmot, eds., Before & After 1865: Education, Politics and Regionalism in the Caribbean (Kingston, 1998), 239-48. Showing Canning Lane, N.L.J. St. C. 272, June 1895, Plan of proposed enlargement for District Prison, Spanish Town, by W. Ivan Harrison.
60.
Only one politician from the Whig government that steered Britain through the Reform Bill crisis is commemorated in any of the town's streets, a list excluding even Whig grandees sympathetic to the planters' cause. The sole exception, Melbourne Lane, commemorates William Lamb, second Viscount Melbourne, who resigned as Queen Victoria's first prime minister in 1839. His decision followed a tight vote in the House of Commons on a bill to suspend the constitution of Jamaica for five years, prompted by the persistent intransigence of the island's Assembly; the vote showed that his Whig Party's parliamentary majority had shrunk too far to sustain further radical measures. Afterwards, when it came to dealing with West Indian Assemblies, subsequent British governments adopted a policy of greater conciliation. Boyd Hilton, A Mad, Bad, and Dangerous People? England 1783-1846 (Oxford, 2006), 500-501; also, William A. Green, "James Stephen and British West India Policy, 1834-1847," Caribbean Studies 13 (1974): 39-42; Philip D. Curtin, Two Jamaicas: The Role of Ideas in a Tropical Colony 1830-1865 (Cambridge, MA, 1955), 97; Anton V. Long, Jamaica and the New Order, 1827-1847 (Institute of Social and Economic Research, Special Series, 1, Kingston, 1956), 41-43.
61.
Graham Anderson , "Wakefield Towns," in Edward Gibbon Wakefield and the Colonial Dream: A Reconsideration (Wellington, 1997), 144, 147.
62.
Discussing the growing need to conform to British standards at this juncture in Cape Town and Sydney, Kirsten MacKenzie, Scandal in the Colonies: Sydney and Cape Town, 1820-1850 (Melbourne, 2004); Mary Turner, Slaves and Missionaries: The Disintegration of Jamaican Slave Society, 1787-1834 (Urbana, IL, 1982), 150.
63.
John Amphlett, Under a Tropical Sky: A Journal of First Impressions of the West Indies (London, 1873), 137; Charles Joseph Galliari Rampini, Letters from Jamaica: The Land of Streams and Woods (Edinburgh, 1873), 45.
64.
Walter Augustus Feurtado, A Forty-Five Years' Reminiscence of the Characteristics and Characters of Spanish Town (Kingston, 1890), 39-40; J.A. 2/2/28, Road Board St. Catherine, 1873-77 (unfoliated), August 21, 1873 meeting, D.D. Soares's report; ibid. July 10, 1873 meeting, report by Soares.
65.
C.E. d'Arcy, "Old St. Jago: Spanish Town-Past and Present," five parts, Jamaica Times (1913), ff. 41, 42. I used a bound set of clippings at the N.L.J.
66.
John Bigelow, Jamaica in 1850: or, the Effects of Sixteen Years of Freedom on a Slave Colony (New York, 1851), 32, 15; Maria Nugent, Lady Nugent's Journal of Her Residence in Jamaica from 1801 to 1805, ed. Philip Wright (1966, n.e. Kingston, 2002), 101, May 8, 1802; Elizabeth Pigou-Dennis, "The Myrtle Bank Hotel and Jamaica's Upper Class, 1914-1945," Jamaican Historical Review 20 (1998): 1-6, 67-68.
67.
Douglas Hall, Grace Kennedy and Company Limited: A Story of Jamaican Enterprise (Kingston, 1992), 189; Rivke Jaffe, "Fragmented Cities: Social Capital and Space in Urban Curaçao and Jamaica," in idem. ed., The Caribbean City (Kingston, 2008), 195. On modern Kingston, see Clarke, Kingston, Jamaica, xx-xxv, 154-346; Sonija Stanley Naah, "Kingston's Dancehall Spaces," Jamaica Journal 29, no. 3 (2006): 14-21; Ann Norton, Shanties and Skyscrapers: Growth and Structure in Modern Kingston (Institute of Social and Economic Research, Working Paper, 13, Kingston, 1978); idem. "The Kingston Metropolitan Area: A Description of its Land Use Patterns," in Jamaican Geographical Society, Essays on Jamaica (Kingston, 1970), 34-44, also Elisabeth Pigou-Dennis, "The Jamaican Bungalow: Whose Language?" in Monteith and Richards, Jamaica in Slavery and Freedom, 179-193 and, evoking an elite colonial neighborhood, Ian Fleming, Dr. No (London, 1957), 1-2. On the shanty towns, David Howard, Kingston: A Cultural and Literary History (Northampton, MA, 2005), 117-37; Laurie Gunst, Born Fi' Dead: A Journey through the Jamaican Posse Underworld (New York, 1995), 15-129; residents' views, L. Allan Eyre, "Biblical Symbolism and the Role of Fantasy Geography among the Rastafarians of Jamaica," Journal of Geography 84 (1985): 144-48; idem. "Political Violence and Urban Geography in Kingston, Jamaica," Geographical Review 74 (1984): 24-37; and Elizabeth Pigou-Dennis, "Fabricating a Space and an Architecture: The Rastafarian Experience in Jamaica," Axis: Journal of the Caribbean School of Architecture 5 (2001), 22-36. I am grateful to Alfred Shirley for advice on the names for some "garrison" districts.
68.
Trollope, WestIndies, 17; Edinburgh, National Library of Scotland, Ms. 17956, Journal of a Visit to Jamaica, 1823-4 (unfoliated), December 25, 1823.
69.
Ian Fleming , The Man with the Golden Gun ( London, 1965), 68-69.
70.
J. Robinson, "Cities between Modernity and Development," South African Geographical Journal 81 (2004): 20; Nigel Thrift, "`Not a Straight Line but a Curve' or, Cities Are Not Mirrors of Modernity," in David Bell and Azzedine Haddour, eds., City Visions (Harlow, 2001), 246.
71.
Pierre Nora, "Introduction to Realms of Memory, volume III," in idem. ed., Realms of Memory: The Construction of the French Past, vol. 3, Symbols (New York, 1998), ix; Jaro Stacul, "Natural Time, Political Time: Contested Histories in Northern Italy," Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 11 (2005): 819; considering modern urban memorialising, Martha Norkunas, Monuments and Memory: History and Representation in Lowell, Massachusetts (Washington, D.C., 2002).
