The deindustrialization of North American cities is generally told as a post-World War II narrative, featuring factory closings, highways to the suburbs, and urban renewal programs responding to the loss of jobs and population. Yet, as recent scholarship on industrial suburbanization has shown, the decentralization of manufacturing manifested itself throughout the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Some scholars of twentieth-century planning have observed that urban renewal programs hurt cities as much as they helped. This essay argues that some late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century redevelopment programs played a greater causal role in deindustrialization and the shift in Americans' conceptions of cities from places of production to places of consumption. Surveying the complex relationships between urban and industrial restructuring in Philadelphia during the pre-Depression decades, it examines the prehistory of federal urban renewal at the state and local level.
Industrial restructuring refers to major changes in macroeconomic structures (often described as a reconfiguration of manufacturing sectors), production processes, and the nature of work. These shifts are, in turn, shaped by changes in product and financial markets, technology, and politics. Social scientists who study twentieth-century cities point to industrial restructuring as a primary cause of deindustrialization— the loss of an industrial economic base and related patterns of work, ecology, and social organization—in many older manufacturing centers. However, industrial restructuring does not necessarily lead to wholesale deindustrialization, as disinvestment in some sectors is often accompanied by equal or greater investment in other sectors. Urban decline generally describes the broader loss of economic base, jobs, population, and tax base from central cities, as well as the related rise of social needs of a poorer population. Recent studies of deindustrialization and urban decline in the Northeastern and Midwestern United States, diverse in their regional, temporal, and disciplinary perspectives, include: Jefferson Cowie and Joseph Heathcott , Beyond the Ruins: The Meanings of Deindustrialization (Ithaca: ILR Press, 2003); Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in PostwarDetroit ( Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996); John T. Cumbler, A Social History of Economic Decline: Business, Politics, and Work in Trenton (New Brunswick : Rutgers University Press, 1989 ); Robert A. Beauregard, Voices of Decline: The Postwar Fate of US Cities (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell , 1993); Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Philip Scranton, Figured Tapestry: Production, Markets, and Power in Philadelphia Textiles, 1885—1941 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Philip Scranton, “Large Firms and Industrial Restructuring: The Philadelphia Region, 1900—1980,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, v. CXVI, October 1992, no. 4, 419—465; “ Deindustrialization: A Panel Discussion,” Pennsylvania History, 1991, no. 58:181—211.
2.
Robert Lewis, ed., Manufacturing Suburbs: Building Work and Home on the Metropolitan Fringe (Philadelphia : Temple University Press, 2004); Robert Lewis, ManufacturingMontreal: The Making of an Industrial Landscape, 1850—1930 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000).
3.
Cumbler, A Social History of Economic Decline.
4.
See, for example, Jon Teaford, The Rough Road to Renaissance: Urban Revitalization in America, 1940—1985 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press , 1990); Joseph Heathcott and Maire Agnes Murphy, “ Corridors of Flight, Zones of Renewal: Industry, Planning, and Policy in the Making of Metropolitan St. Louis, 1940—1980,” Journal of Urban History31, no.2 (January 2005): 151—89; Andrew Feffer, “Show Down in Center City: Staging Redevelopment and Citizenship in Bicentennial Philadelphia, 1974—1977,” Journal of Urban History30, no.4 (September 2004): 791—825; Maire Agnes Murphy, The Metropolitan Project: Leadership, Policy, and Development in St. Louis, Missouri, 1945—1980 (PhD dissertation, University of Virginia, 2004); Guian McKee, Philadelphia Liberals and the Problem of Jobs, 1951—1980 (PhD dissertation, University of California, 2003 ); Stephen Metraux , “Waiting for the Wrecking Ball: Skid Row in Postindustrial Philadelphia,” Journal of Urban History25, no.3 (July 1999): 690—715; Wendy Plotkin, “Urban Public Policy: A Plague upon the Cities?” Journal of Urban History29, no.4 (September 2003): 767—77.
5.
Joel Schwartz, The NewYorkApproach: Robert Moses, Urban Liberals, and Redevelopment of the Inner City (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1993).
6.
These terms are borrowed from Peter McCaffery, When Bosses Ruled Philadelphia: The Emergence of the Republican Machine, 1867—1933 ( University Park, PA: Penn State Press, 1993).
7.
This study of Bush Hill does not set out to explain the decline of industrial Philadelphia, nor that of the broader Rustbelt, in its entirety. The Delaware Valley region's manufacturing base was remarkably diverse, and this article largely neglects the many important sectors outside of the metalworking trades. The market and capital-labor relations dimensions of early twentieth century decline among Philadelphia metalworkers are detailed in firm and sector histories, including: John K. Brown, The Baldwin Locomotive Works, 1831—1915 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); Howell JohnHarris, Bloodless Victories: The Rise and Fall of the Open Shop in the Philadelphia Metal Trades, 1890—1940 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Thomas Heinrich, Ships for the Seven Seas: Philadelphia Shipbuilding in the Age of Industrial Capitalism (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997); Philip Scranton, Endless Novelty: Specialty Production and American Industrialization, 1865—1925 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997); idem, Figured Tapestry; Harry C. Silcox, A Place to Live and Work: The Henry Disston Saw Works and the Tacony Community of Philadelphia (University Park, PA: Penn State Press, 1994). In addition, Baldwin, Sellers, and Bement—the firms and their directors— were central to the social organization of innovation in the industrial city, leading the region's principal institutions of technical research, education, and technology transfer in the nineteenth century; and the decline of their institutional activities is little more than a subtext of the article.
8.
Lincoln Steffens , The Shame of the Cities ( New York: McClure, Philips, 1904), 12; Howard Gillette, “Philadelphia's City Hall: Monument to a New Political Machine,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography April 1973, 97:233—49.
9.
George E. Thomas, William L. Price: Arts and Crafts to Modern Design (New York: PrincetonArchitectural Press, 2000 ), 18—20.
10.
Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia: Paris Exhibition, 1900 (Philadelphia, 1900), 6; Eleventh Annual Report of the Factory Inspector of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania for the Year 1900 (Harrisburg, 1901), 110—11.
11.
Brown, The Baldwin Locomotive Works, 194.
12.
Pratt and Whitney Company to C.C. Cuyler, November 13, 1900 (Pratt & Whitney Papers, Connecticut State Library); Twelfth Annual Report of the Factory Inspector of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania for the Year 1901 (Harrisburg, 1902), 114—15; Scranton, “Large Firms and Industrial Restructuring,” 430.
13.
Jeffrey P. Roberts , “Railroads and the Downtown: Philadelphia, 1830—1900,” in The Divided Metropolis: Social and Spatial Dimensions of Philadelphia, 1800—1975, eds. William W. Cutler, III and Howard Gillette, Jr. (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980), 31.
14.
Brown, The Baldwin Locomotive Works, 3—8; Joseph W. Roe, English and American Tool Builders: The Men Who Created Machine Tools ( New Haven: Yale University Press, 1915), 247—55; deed summary sheets, plot 3 N 22, Philadelphia City Archives.
15.
Eli Kirk Price, A Digest of the Acts of Assembly and of the Ordinances of the Inhabitants and Commissioners of the District of Spring Garden, for the Government of that District (Philadelphia , 1833).
16.
Brown, The Baldwin Locomotive Works, 135.
17.
Bement and Sellers employed family members; and Bement appears to have bought homes on Spring Garden and 18th Streets to house employees. Roe, English and American Tool Builders, 251, 255. Deed abstracts, plots 4 N 20-4-6, 12, 48, 52, 60 (Philadelphia City Archives). Gopsill's Philadelphia City Directory for 1900, 178, 2058, 2333.
18.
In 1902, Baldwin employed 50 percent more men than Cramp's shipyard, the region's second largest firm; its neighbor across Broad Street, Hoopes & Townsend, was the eleventh largest metalworking firm and twenty-first overall; Sellers was sixteenth and twenty-ninth, while Bement was seventeenth and thirty-first. Philip Scranton, “Large Firms and Industrial Restructuring,” 430.
19.
Eleventh Annual Report of the Factory Inspector, 106—25.
20.
Scranton, Endless Novelty; William Sellers & Company Papers, Accession 1466, Hagley Center; Brown, The Baldwin Locomotive Works, 187, 191.
21.
Charles Cheape, Moving the Masses: Urban Public Transit in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, 1880—1912 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980); Nicholas B.Wainwright, History of the Philadelphia Electric Company, 1881—1961 ( Philadelphia, 1961), 10—11.
22.
Burton Hendrick, The Age of Big Business: A Chronicle of the Captains of Industry ( New Haven: Yale University Press, 1921), chapter 5.
23.
McCaffery, When Bosses Ruled Philadelphia, 26. For general treatments of political machines and urban regimes in the United States, see John Logan and Harvey Molotch, Urban Fortunes: The Political Economy of Place (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988); Clarence Stone, Regime Politics: Governing Atlanta, 1946—1988 (Lawrence : University of Kansas Press, 1989 ); Bruce Stave , Urban Bosses, Machines and Progressive Reformers (New York: Krieger, 1984).
24.
McCaffery, When Bosses RuledPhiladelphia, 193—202.
25.
Maxwell Whiteman , Gentlemen in Crisis: The First Century of the Union League of Philadelphia (Philadelphia: Union League, 1975), 114—15.
26.
Roberts, “ Railroads and the Downtown: Philadelphia, 1830—1900,” 27—55.
27.
Baird et al. versus Rice et al., 53 Pennsylvania State Reports (1871), 500; Baird et al. vs. Rice et al., 8 Philadelphia Reports (1870—71), 61—7.
28.
Ordinances Pertaining to the Removal of Grade Crossings (Philadelphia, 1902), 18.
29.
A.J. Holman , “The Reading Railroad Company vs. The City of Philadelphia” (February 12, 1890).
30.
William Sellers to Henry C. Lea (January 16, 1889), Henry C. LeaPapers, Annenberg Rare Book and Manuscript Library, University of Pennsylvania .
31.
E.C. Quarles , History of the Pennsylvania Avenue Subway and Tunnel (Philadelphia, 1899), 1.
32.
Mayor Stuart's letter was reprinted in “A Great Work ,” The Public Ledger (January 5, 1894 ), 1.
33.
The Citizens' Committee on the Pennsylvania Ave. Track Question, “A Few of the Editorials that Have Appeared from Time to Time in the Daily Papers on the Plan for Depressing the Tracks on Pennsylvania Avenue” (February 1894), 25.
34.
“Sinking of the Reading Tracks,” Record (January 5, 1894), in “A Few of the Editorials,” 13.
35.
“A Great Municipal Improvement,” Times, January 15, 1894, in The Citizens' Committee on the Pennsylvania Ave. Track Question, “ A Few of the Editorials,” 25—6.
36.
“The Reading, the City and Pennsylvania Avenue,” Evening Bulletin, January 4, 1894, in “ A Few of the Editorials,” 11—12.
37.
“The Reading, the City and Pennsylvania Avenue,” 11.
38.
“ A Great Work,” 5.
39.
“Mr. Sellers and the Pennsylvania Avenue Tracks,” Evening Bulletin (January 15, 1894), in “ A Few of the Editorials…,” 27—8.
40.
“Pennsylvania Avenue,” Public Ledger, January 17, 1894, 2.
41.
“Objections to the Subway Plan,” Times, January 17, 1894, in “A Few of the Editorials,” 28.
42.
Public Ledger, February 2, 1894, 1.
43.
Wagner Scrapbook, v. 2.
44.
Ordinances Pertaining to the Removal of Grade Crossings, 38.
45.
Times, May 11, 1897 and May 23, 1897, Wagner Scrapbook v. 2.
46.
Quarles, History of the Pennsylvania Avenue Subway and Tunnel, 1—3; Chief Engineer's Register of Construction, Philadelphia & Reading Railroad files (accession 1520), box 12 (OS), Hagley; “The Pennsylvania Avenue Subway and Tunnel in Philadelphia, PA,” Engineering NewsXXXV no.16 (April 16, 1896), 260—62; “Work on the Subway,” Times, July 22, 1896, Wagner Scrapbook v. 1; “Reading Subway,” Evening Telegraph, July 23, 1896, Wagner Scrapbook v. 1; “ Subway and Tunnel,” Engineering News and American Railway Journal, April 16, 23, 30, May 7, 1896, Wagner Scrapbook v. 1; “Notice to Contractors,” Engineering Record, April 11, 18, 25, May 2, Wagner Scrapbook v. 1.
47.
“Subway Bridge Ready for Use,” Evening Telegraph, July 2, 1898, 1.
48.
“The Pratt & Whitney Company” (Pratt & Whitney Papers); Eleventh Annual Report of the Factory Inspector, 114—39.
49.
Roe, English and American Tool Builders, 178, 222, 255, 259, 273. Niles-Bement-Pond Company , Machine Tools (New York: N-B-P, 1903).
50.
Boyd's Philadelphia Directory for 1925, 304; Deed Abstracts, plot 4 N 20—52.
51.
Pratt and WhitneyCompany to C.C. Cuyler, November 13, 1900 (Pratt & Whitney Papers, Connecticut State Library).
52.
“Rushing Work on the Reading Subway,” Times, January 27, 1898, Wagner Scrapbook v. 2.
53.
“ The Pennsylvania Avenue Subway and Tunnel in the City of Philadelphia,” 95; Builders Guide 15, no.40 (October 3, 1900) and 16, no.21 (May 22, 1901).
54.
“The Pennsylvania Avenue Subway and Tunnel in the City of Philadelphia,” American Engineer, Car Builder and Railroad Journal (June 1896): 95; “Pushing Work on the Subway,” Times, April 9, 1896, Wagner Scrapbook v. 1; “The Pennsylvania Avenue Subway, Philadelphia,” The Engineering RecordXXXIII, April 18, 1896, no. 20:348.
55.
Deed Abstracts, plots 3 N 22—9, 11, 13; “Reading's Acquisition,” Evening Bulletin, July 21, 1897, Wagner Scrapbook v. 2; “ Work Progressing on the Reading Subway,” Times, January 30, 1898, Wagner Scrapbook v. 2.
56.
“ Rushing Work on the Reading Subway.”
57.
“Subway Damages,” Public Ledger , June 30, 1900, Wagner Scrapbook v. 3. See also, “Large Awards Made,” Press, November 20, 1896; “Subway Damages: Property Owners on Pennsylvania Avenue Secure $78,000,” Evening Bulletin, December 1, 1896; “ Subway Awards,” Public Ledger, May 2, 1898, all Wagner Scrapbook v. 2.
58.
“Subway Drive May Be Blocked,” Press, June 23, 1898, Wagner Scrapbook v. 2.
“Improvements at the Baldwin Locomotive Works,” Railway Gazette v. XXXIV, no.44 (October 31, 1902): 828—9; “Enlargement of the Baldwin Locomotive Works,” Railway Age (November 21, 1902): 553—9.
65.
Brown, The Baldwin Locomotive Works, 190.
66.
Lincoln Steffens , “Philadelphia: Corrupt and Contented,” in The Shame of the Cities, ed. Lincoln Steffens , 134.
67.
“Stole Part of the Schuylkill River” (August 9, 1899), “Stealing a River” (August 10, 1899), “Robbery, Typhoid, Kinsey” (August 11, 1899), “The Real Anarchists” (August 14, 1899), and “Took a City Street This Time” (August 15, 1899), North American, Wagner Scrapbook v. 3.
68.
Philadelphia & Reading Railway Company , “What Rights Have Been Acquired by the Philadelphia, Germantown and Norristown Railroad Company to its Present Location Within the City Limits of Philadelphia” (Philadelphia, October 6, 1903), 1, 8.
69.
Steffens, “ Philadelphia: Corrupt and Contented,” 145.
70.
For a review of transatlantic Progressive initiatives, see Daniel Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age ( Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998).
71.
Broad Street, Penn Square, and the Park (Philadelphia, 1871) ; Albert Kelsey, ed., The Proposed Parkway for Philadelphia (Philadelphia: Parkway Association, 1902); Andrew Wright Crawford et al., “ An Outline of the History of the Fairmount Parkway,” Fairmount Park Art Association (Philadelphia, 1922).
72.
The story of the parkway has largely been told by art and architectural historians, including David B. Brownlee, Building the City Beautiful: The Benjamin Franklin Parkway and the Philadelphia Museum of Art (Philadelphia : Philadelphia Museum of Art, 1989 ); Cyrus Dezfuli-Arjomandi, The Benjamin Franklin Parkway in Philadelphia: A Study of the Forces Behind its Creation and Evolution(PhD dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1985 ); Kenneth Finkel , Public Architecture and the Emergence of Public Avenues in Philadelphia, 1800—1920 (MA thesis, Temple University, 1978); W.S. Stanton, “Outline History of the Fairmount Parkway 1871—1935,” ( Philadelphia, 1935). For general histories of the City Beautiful movement in the United States, see William H. Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989); M. Christine Boyer, Dreaming the Rational City: The Myth of American City Planning ( Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1983).
73.
Thomas L. Hicks, “The Boulevard Well Considered,” Philadelphia Inquirer, July 2, 1894.
74.
“A Grand Boulevard,” Philadelphia Inquirer, September 9, 1891.
75.
Hicks, “The Boulevard Well Considered”; United Labor League of Philadelphia, Meeting of May 14, 1893, in Minute Book of the Philadelphia Council of AFL-CIO, Temple University Urban Archives.
76.
Philadelphia Inquirer, June 20, 1894.
77.
Philadelphia Inquirer, June 19, 1894.
78.
Reprinted in Kelsey, ed., The Proposed Parkway for Philadelphia, 64—73.
79.
Philadelphia Inquirer, June 22 and 23, 1894 ; Albert Kelsey, ed., The Proposed Parkway for Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1902), 15.
80.
“Park Approach Vetoed by Mayor,” Press, April 6, 1900; “Why the Mayor Vetoed Park Bill,” Times, April 21, 1900.
81.
“Philadelphians Condemned for Lack of Public Spirit,” Evening Bulletin, April 20, 1900.
82.
“The Approach to the Park,” Times , April 21, 1900. Henry had married into the powerful Houston family, which developed the elite neighborhood of Chestnut Hill. David Contosta, Suburb in the City: Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia, 1850—1990 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1992).
83.
“The Boulevard Proposition is Gaining Strength from the Character of the Opposition to It,” Philadelphia Inquirer , July 4, 1902, reprinted in Kelsey, ed., The Proposed Parkway for Philadelphia, 61—2.
84.
“ The Boulevard Proposition is Gaining Strength,” 62.
85.
Reprinted in Kelsey, ed., The Proposed Parkway for Philadelphia, 75.
86.
John Converse to Leslie Miller (December 4, 1903), Fairmount Park Art Association Papers, box 55, Benjamin Franklin Parkway Correspondence 1903—1904 folder, HSP.
87.
SGR313416Cited in Werner Hegemann and Elbert Peets, The American Vitruvius: An Architect's Handbook of Civic Art (New York, 1988 [1922]), 261; City and State (June 19, 1902), and “The Boulevard Proposition is Gaining Strength,” reprinted in Kelsey, ed., The Proposed Parkway for Philadelphia, 56, 61—2.
88.
Charles Borie , Horace Trumbauer, and Clark Zantzinger, “Report of the Commission to Study the Entrance to the Philadelphia Parkway into Fairmount Park” (Philadelphia, 1907).
89.
Times, June 14, 1902.
90.
Rudolph Blankenburg , “Forty Years in the Wilderness; or, Masters and Rulers of `The Freemen' of Pennsylvania,” Arena33 (August 1905), 128—42; McCaffery, When Bosses Ruled Philadelphia, 91—3.
91.
“Widener Offers to Crown Parkway with Magnificent $2,000,000 Art Gallery,” Press, April 7, 1907; “Offers $10,000,000 for an Art Gallery,” New York Times, April 7, 1907; Brownlee, Building the City Beautiful, 22.
92.
“City Will Get Elkins' Paintings,” Philadelphia Inquirer, March 25, 1905; “Finest Gallery of Art in World for Quaker City,” Philadelphia Inquirer, October 28, 1906; “Proposes City Art Gallery,” Press, October 28, 1906.
93.
Athenaeum of Philadelphia, Cret Collection; University of Pennsylvania Architectural Archives, Cret Collection.
94.
George E. Thomas , The Parkway Chronology ( Philadelphia, 1999).
95.
Fairmount Park Art Association Papers, box 55, Benjamin Franklin Parkway Correspondence 1909—1913/1915—1921 folder, HSP.
96.
Testimony of George S. Webster, Fairmount Park Art Association Papers, box 55, Benjamin Franklin Parkway Correspondence 1909—1913/1915—1921 folder, HSP.
97.
Brownlee, Building the City Beautiful, 29.
98.
“Park Board Gets Public Squares,” news clipping (July 7, 1916), Fairmount Park Art Association Papers, box 55, Benjamin Franklin Parkway Correspondence 1909—1913/1915—1921 folder, HSP.
99.
“Joint Bodies Will Plan New Parkway,” Public Ledger, November 9, 1916.
100.
Annual Report of the Art Jury (Philadelphia , 1918), 13.
101.
Jacques Gréber plan, 1919, Fairmount Park Art Association Archives (box 55, Benjamin Franklin Parkway plan folder), HSP.
102.
Assessed Values of Real Estate in Philadelphia, 1917 (Boston, 1917), 336, 368.
103.
Deed abstracts, plots 3 N 24—1—4, 16—17, 19—26, 33, 65.
Daniel Burnham and Edward H. Bennett, Plan of Chicago ( New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1993 [1909]); Richard Schermerhorn, Jr., “ City Planning,” Brooklyn Engineers' Club Proceedings16 (1912):102—43; Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings , 169—70; Eric Sandweiss, St. Louis: The Evolution of an American Urban Landscape (Temple University Press, 2001).
108.
Frederic C. Howe, “The Remaking of the American City ,” Harper's Monthly127 (July 1913): 186—97.
109.
Brown, The Baldwin Locomotive Works, 215—16, 224, 227—8, 282 n.112.
110.
Brown, The Baldwin Locomotive Works, 216, 223.
111.
Deed abstracts, plots 4 N 19—38, 39, 43, 45, 56—66, 86—91; Samuel M. Vauclain, Steaming Up! (New York, 1930), 273—74.
112.
Vauclain, Steaming Up! , 198.
113.
Harris, Bloodless Victories, 143. This argument has been made by other historians of industrial suburbanization and company town-building. See, for example, Lewis, ed., Manufacturing Suburbs; Anne Mosher, Capital's Utopia: Vandergrift, Pennsylvania, 1855—1916 (Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003).
114.
“Johnson and Vauclain Buy in Delaware Co.: Baldwin Officials Plan Construction of Homes on Land Recently Taken Over,” Public Ledger, August 13, 1910.
115.
Alba B. Johnson, “ Chester's Opportunity,” Address delivered to the Civic Advancement Commission of Chester, PA (January 25, 1913).
116.
Heinrich, Ships for the Seven Seas, 166.
117.
Harris, Bloodless Victories, 274; Memorandum (March 21, 1919), Samuel M. Vauclain Collection, Box 2, Interoffice Memos 1919 folder, HSP.
118.
“Industrial Philadelphia: The Baldwin Locomotive Works ,” The Girard Letter2, no.3 (March 1922): 6.
119.
“The Baldwin Locomotive Works, Eddystone, Pennsylvania ,” advertisement, William L.Austin Papers, Box 8, Hagley; The Story of Baldwin (Philadelphia, 1943); History of the Baldwin Locomotive Works 1831—1923 ( Philadelphia: Bingham, 1923); The Story of Eddystone (Philadelphia: Baldwin Locomotive Works, 1928).
120.
Boyd's Philadelphia Directory for 1925 ( Philadelphia: R. L. Polk, 1925), 1162.
121.
Brown, The Baldwin Locomotive Works, 227.
122.
Ibid, 228.
123.
Scranton, “ Large Firms and Industrial Restructuring,” 438.
124.
The Story of Baldwin; Baldwin Locomotive Works Annual Report, 1931.
125.
Philip Scranton and Walter Licht, Work Sights: Industrial Philadelphia, 1890—1950 ( Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), 194.
126.
“The last annual Fairmount Park Race, 1911, was won by Erwin Bergdoll, son of a millionaire Philadelphia brewer, in a Benz, #8. Winning average speed was 60.80 mph over 202 miles.” Philadelphian Collection (Fairmount Park—Auto Races 1908—1911 folder), Free Library of Philadelphia Prints and Pictures Department .
127.
Deed abstracts, plot 3 N 20—26—29, 49, 38, and plot 3 N 21—57.
128.
The Business Directory Company, Tri-State Business Directory, 1913 (Philadelphia, 1913), 10. George and Walter Bromley, Atlas of the City of Philadelphia 1 (Philadelphia, 1922) plate 8.
129.
Lindy Biggs, The Rational Factory: Architecture, Technology, and Work in America's Age of Mass Production (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); David Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800—1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984).
130.
Scranton, “ Large Firms and Industrial Restructuring,” 432, 440; Harris, Bloodless Victories , 47.
131.
Albert M. GreenfieldPapers, Box 27, folder 18, HSP.
132.
Albert M.Greenfield to Samuel M. Vauclain (June 27, 1928 and July 5, 1928), Albert M. GreenfieldPapers, Box 57, folder 11, HSP.
133.
“Release to Morning Papers, Tuesday, July 3, 1928,” Albert M. GreenfieldPapers, Box 57, folder 11, HSP.
134.
“For Immediate Release” (January 18, 1929), Albert M. GreenfieldPapers, Box 57, folder 11, HSP.
135.
“Re: Philadelphia Properties of Baldwin Locomotive Works, Revised Schedule of Prices July 1st, 1932,” (July 2, 1932), Albert M. Greenfield to Samuel M. Vauclain (July 5, 1932), Samuel M. Vauclain to Albert M. Greenfield (July 6, 1932), Albert M. GreenfieldPapers, Box 57, folder 11, HSP.
136.
Albert M. Greenfield to Baldwin Locomotive Works (July 2, 1928), Albert M. GreenfieldPapers, Box 57, folder 11, HSP; Builders ' Guide51, no.1 (January 1, 1936).
137.
“$4,000,000 Arena Projected for Site of Baldwin Works ,” Record (February 1939), “ New Rink Rumor Denied by Tyrrell,” Philadelphia Inquirer , February 9, 1939, in Albert M. Greenfield Papers, Box 92, folder 11, HSP; “School Stadium May Be Built on Baldwin Site ,” Record, 1940, in Albert M. GreenfieldPapers, Box 100, folder 12, HSP.
138.
Deed abstracts, plots 3 N 22—14; 3 N 22—95, 99; 3 N 21—58; 3 N 20—38; 3 N 21—15; 4 N 16—7—9; 4 N 17—80; 4 N 19—38, 43; 4 N 19—96—97; 4 N 19—98, all Philadelphia City Archives; Civil Action #2512; C. J. Todaro, File #23900, “United States of America vs. 1.87 +/- acres Baldwin Locomotive Works et al., recorded in deed book D.W.C. 1568—221 (May 6, 1942).
139.
Scranton, “Large Firms and Industrial Restructuring,” 423—24.
140.
Walter Licht, Getting Work: Philadelphia, 1840—1950 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992), 13; Scranton, “Large Firms and Industrial Restructuring,” 420—23.
141.
Cumbler, A Social History of Economic Decline.
142.
Walter Licht submits that the “growth of a standardized marketplace proved to be the critical blow to Philadelphia's production system.” Licht, Getting Work, 269, note 30; see also, Scranton, Figured Tapestry. As a region dominated by specialist and batch manufacturers, as opposed to mass producers, Philadelphia was poorly prepared to shift from a manufacturing base that largely served the particular needs of individual customers to one focused far more on the speed and cost of production for mass markets. This is particularly true in the capital equipment sectors, as the decline of the railroads—consumers of large, costly, often custom-built machines—and the rise of the mass-produced automobile as North America's dominant mode of transportation reshaped product demand and production processes.
143.
Vitiello, Engineering the Metropolis, chapter 8.
144.
Heinrich, Ships for the Seven Seas, 209; Machinists Monthly Journal (September 1921), 771.
145.
Harris, Bloodless Victories, 275.
146.
Herman LeRoy Collins, Philadelphia: A Story of Progress (Philadelphia: Lewis, 1941), 97.
147.
Scranton, “ Large Firms and Industrial Restructuring,” 455.
148.
Ibid, 440.
149.
The fiscal and socioeconomic troubles of many older, “inner ring” suburbs across the United States derive in part from their histories of industrialization and deindustrialization. For surveys of metropolitics, see Myron Orfield, American Metropolitics: The New Suburban Reality (Washington, DC: Brookings, 2002); Peter Dreier, John Mollenkopf, and Todd Swanstrom, Place Matters: Metropolitics for the Twenty-First Century (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2001).
150.
Scranton, “ Large Firms and Industrial Restructuring,” 464.
