Twenty-six Black collegians were exposed to a vicarious racial harassment stimulus (VRHS) then randomized into a Black Lives Matter Meditation for Healing Racial Trauma condition or a silence control condition. Heart rate (HR) was recorded throughout the experiment. Semi-structured interviews were then conducted to elicit participants’ appraisal of the VRHS and meditation. Using a Qual:Quan mixed methods experimental design, this pilot study qualitatively categorized how participants (1) described their reactions to the VRHS and (2) appraised the meditation. Participants described three types of race-based stress reactions and reported mostly positive appraisal of the meditation, although some indicated that it would not be a preferred coping strategy. To triangulate the quantitative findings, we found a significant increase in HR during VRHS. The meditation group displayed statistically significant reductions in HR from stimulus to the end of meditation; however, there were no statistically significant differences between the control and meditation groups. Results have implications for understanding and facilitating race-based stress recovery.
AndersonR. E.JonesS.AnyiwoN.McKennyM.Gaylord‐HardenN. (2019). What's race got to do with it? Racial socialization's contribution to Black adolescent coping. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 29(4), 822-831. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12440
2.
AndersonR. E.StevensonH. C. (2019). RECASTing racial stress and trauma: Theorizing the healing potential of racial socialization in families. American Psychologist, 74(1), 63. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000392
3.
AniM (1994). Yurugu: An African-centered critique of European cultural thought and behavior. Africa World Press.
4.
BebloT.FernandoS.KlockeS.GriepenstrohJ.AschenbrennerS.DriessenM. (2012). Increased suppression of negative and positive emotions in major depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 141(2-3), 474-479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2012.03.019
5.
BellK.A.KobayashiI.AkeebA.LavelaJ.MellmanT.A. (2019). Emotional response to perceived racism and nocturnal heart rate variability in young adult African Americans. Journal of psychosomatic research, 121, 88-92. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2019.03.180.
6.
BellT. P. (2015). Meditative practice cultivates mindfulness and reduces anxiety, depression, blood pressure, and heart rate in a diverse sample. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 29(4), 343-355. https://doi.org/10.1891/0889-8391.29.4.343
7.
BlackmonS. K. M.NevilleH. A.Jones ThomasA. (2019). Ideology matters: College students’ emotional reactions to the killing of Trayvon Martin. The Counseling Psychologist, 47(6), 909-937. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000019893089
8.
BoykinA. W. (1986). The triple quandary and the schooling of Afro-American children. In The school achievement of minority children: New perspectives (pp. 57-92). Routledge.
9.
BronderE. C.SpeightS. L.WitherspoonK. M.ThomasA. J. (2014). John Henryism, depression, and perceived social support in black women. Journal of Black Psychology, 40(2), 115-137. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798412474466
CarnethonM. R.PuJ.HowardG.AlbertM. A.AndersonC.BertoniA. G.MujahidM. S.PalaniappanL.TaylorH. A.Jr.WillisM.YancyC. W.American Heart Association Council on Epidemiology and Prevention; Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young; Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing; Council on Clinical Cardiology; Council on Functional Genomics and Translational Biology; and Stroke Council (2017). Cardiovascular health in African Americans: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 136(21), e393-e423. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000534
12.
CarterR. T. (2007). Racism and psychological and emotional injury: Recognizing and assessing race-based traumatic stress. The Counseling Psychologist, 35, 13-105. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006292033
ClarkR.AndersonN. B.ClarkV. R.WilliamsD. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. American Psychologist, 54(10), 805-816. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.10.805
16.
Comas-DíazL.HallG. N.NevilleH. A. (2019). Racial trauma: Theory, research, and healing: Introduction to the special issue. American Psychologist, 74(1), 1-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/amp0000442
17.
CooperB. (2018). Eloquent rage: A Black feminist discovers her superpower. St. Martin’s Press.
DiAngeloR. (2011). White fragility. International Journal of Critical Pedagogy, 3(3), 54-70.
20.
DijkstraM. S.SoerR.BielemanA.McCratyR.OosterveldF.GrossD.RenemanM. (2019). Exploring a 1-Minute paced deep-breathing measurement of heart rate variability as part of a workers’ health assessment. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 44(2), 83-96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10484-018-9422-4
EvansL.MooreW. L. (2015). Impossible burdens: White institutions, emotional labor, and micro-resistance. Social Problems, 62(3), 439-454. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spv009
24.
GeronimusA. T.HickenM.KeeneD.BoundJ. (2006). “Weathering” and age patterns of allostatic load scores among Blacks and Whites in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 96(5), 826-833. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2004.060749
25.
GerrardM.GibbonsF. X.FleischliM. E.CutronaC. E.StockM. L. (2018). Moderation of the effects of discrimination-induced affective responses on health outcomes. Psychology & Health, 33(2), 193-212. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2017.1314479
26.
GianarosP. J.OnyewuenyiI. C.SheuL. K.ChristieI. C.CritchleyH. D. (2012). Brain systems for baroreflex suppression during stress in humans. Human brain mapping, 33(7), 1700-1716. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.21315
27.
GintyA. T. (2013). Blunted responses to stress and reward: Reflections on biological disengagement? International Journal of Psychophysiology, 90(1), 90-94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2013.06.008
28.
GordonJ. L.JohnsonJ.NauS.MechlinB.GirdlerS. S. (2017). The role of chronic psychosocial stress in explaining racial differences in stress reactivity and pain sensitivity. Psychosomatic Medicine, 79(2), 201-212. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000385
29.
GoswamiD. P.TibarewalaD. N.BhattacharyaD. K. (2011). Analysis of heart rate variability signal in meditation using second-order difference plot. Journal of Applied Physics, 109(11), 114703. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3586270
HallG. C. N.IbarakiA. Y.HuangE. R.MartiC. N.SticeE. (2016). A meta-analysis of cultural adaptations of psychological interventions. Behavior Therapy, 47(6), 993-1014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2016.09.005
32.
HargonsC. (2022). Mindfulness and matter: The Black Lives Matter meditation for healing racial trauma. In FlemingC.M.WomackV. Y.ProulxJ. (Eds), Beyond White mindfulness: Critical perspectives on racism, wellness and liberation (pp. 98-109). Routledge.
33.
HargonsC.N.MaloneN.MontiqueC.DoganJ.StuckJ.MeillerC.SanchezA.SullivanQ.BohmerC.CurveyR.Stevens-WatkinsD.WoodsI.TylerK.OluokunJ. (2021). White people stress me out all the time": Black students define racial trauma. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000351
34.
HargonsC.MosleyD.FalconerJ.FaloughiSinghR.A.CokleyK.Stevens-WatkinsD. (2017). Black lives matter: A call to action for counseling psychology leaders. The Counseling Psychologist, 45(6), 873-901. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000017733048
35.
HarperS. R.DavisR. J.JonesD. E.McGowanB. L.IngramT. N.PlattC. S. (2011). Race and racism in the experiences of Black male resident assistants at predominantly White universities. Journal of College Student Development, 52(2), 180-200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/csd.2011.0025
36.
HarrellS. P. (2000). A multidimensional conceptualization of racism‐related stress: Implications for the well‐being of people of color. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70(1), 42-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087722
37.
HarrellJ. P.HallS.TaliaferroJ. (2003). Physiological responses to racism and discrimination: An assessment of the evidence. American Journal of Public Health, 93(2), 243-248. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.93.2.243
38.
HillL. K.HoggardL. S.RichmondA. S.GrayD. L.WilliamsD. P.ThayerJ. F. (2017). Examining the association between perceived discrimination and heart rate variability in African Americans. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 23(1), 5-14. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000076
39.
HillL. K.HuD. D.KoenigJ.SollersJ. J.3rdKapukuG.WangX.ThayerJ. F. (2015). Ethnic differences in resting heart rate variability: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychosomatic Medicine, 77(1), 16-25. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000133
40.
HillL. K.ThayerJ. F. (2019). The autonomic nervous system and hypertension: ethnic differences and psychosocial factors. Current Cardiology Reports, 21(3), 15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11886-019-1100-5
HoggardL. S.ByrdC. M.SellersR. M. (2015). The lagged effects of racial discrimination on depressive symptomology and interactions with racial identity. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62(2), 216-225. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/cou0000069
43.
HoggardL. S.HillL. K.GrayD. L.SellersR. M. (2015). Capturing the cardiac effects of racial discrimination: Do the effects “keep going”?. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 97(2), 163-170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2015.04.015
44.
HunnV.HarleyD.ElliottW.CanfieldJ. P. (2015). Microaggression and the mitigation of psychological harm: Four social workers’ exposition for care of clients, students, and faculty who suffer “a thousand little cuts.”. Journal of Pan African Studies, 7(9), 41-55.
45.
HwangW.C.ChanC. P. (2019). Compassionate meditation to heal from race-related stress: A pilot study with Asian Americans. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 89(4), 482-492. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ort0000372
46.
JamesS. A.HartnettS. A.KalsbeekW. D. (1983). John Henryism and blood pressure differences among Black men. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 6(3), 259-278. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01315113
47.
JonesS.C.T.AndersonR.E.Gaskin-WassonA.L.SawyerB.A.ApplewhiteK.MetzgerI.W. (2020). From “crib to coffin”: Navigating coping from racism-related stress throughout the lifespan of Black Americans. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 90(2), 267-282. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ort0000430
48.
Kabat-ZinnJ (1994). Wherever you go, there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life. Hachette Books.
49.
KarmaliF.KawakamiK.Page-GouldE. (2017). He said what? Physiological and cognitive responses to imagining and witnessing outgroup racism. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 146(8), 1073-1085. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000304
50.
KendiI. X. (2016). Stamped from the beginning. Bold Type Books.
51.
KurianA. K.CardarelliK. M. (2007). Racial and ethnic differences in cardiovascular disease risk factors: A systematic review. Ethnicity & Disease, 17, 143-152.
52.
LeeA. K.CorneilleM. A.HallN. M.YancuC. N.MyersM. (2016). The stressors of being young and Black: Cardiovascular health and Black young adults. Psychology & Health, 31(5), 578-591. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2015.1127373
LoJ. C.SehicE.MeijerS. A. (2017). Measuring mental workload with low-cost and wearable sensors: insights into the accuracy, obtrusiveness, and research usability of three instruments. Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making, 11(4), 323-336. https://doi.org/10.1177/1555343417716040
55.
MabryJ. B.KiecoltK. J. (2005). Anger in Black and White: Race, alienation, and anger. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 46(1), 85-101. https://doi.org/10.1177/002214650504600107
56.
MajorsR.BillsonJ. M. (1992). Cool pose. Lexington.
57.
MalterudK.SiersmaV. D.GuassoraA. D. (2016). Sample size in qualitative interview studies: Guided by information power. Qualitative Health Research, 26, 1753-1760. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732315617444
58.
MarsT. S.AbbyH. (2010). Mindfulness meditation practise as a healthcare intervention: A systematic review. International Journal of Osteopathic Medicine, 13(2), 56-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijosm.2009.07.005
59.
MatthewsD. D.HammondW. P.Nuru-JeterA.Cole-LewisY.MelvinT. (2013). Racial discrimination and depressive symptoms among African-American men: The mediating and moderating roles of masculine self-reliance and John Henryism. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 14(1), 35-46. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028436
PieterseA. L.ToddN. R.NevilleH. A.CarterR. T. (2012). Perceived racism and mental health among Black American adults: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026208
66.
Polanco-RomanL.DaniesA.AnglinD. M. (2016). Racial discrimination as race-based trauma, coping strategies, and dissociative symptoms among emerging adults. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 8(5), 609-617. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000125
67.
PonterottoJ.G. (2005). Qualitative research in counseling psychology: A primer on research paradigms and philosophy of science. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52(2), 126-136. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.52.2.126
68.
PonterottoJ. G. (2010). Qualitative research in multicultural psychology: Philosophical underpinnings, popular approaches, and ethical considerations. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16(4), 581-589. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012051
69.
RagsdaleB. L (2000). Surveillance of African American men and its possible effect on social, emotional, and psychological functioning. Journal of African American Men, 5(1), 33-42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12111-000-1013-8
70.
SawyerP. J.MajorB.CasadB. J.TownsendS. S.MendesW. B. (2012). Discrimination and the stress response: Psychological and physiological consequences of anticipating prejudice in interethnic interactions. American Journal of Public Health, 102(5), 1020-1026. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2011.300620
71.
SchulzK.AltmanD.MoherD., (2010). CONSORT 2010 statement: updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials. Trials, 11(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1745-6215-11-32
72.
SeppäläE. M.NitschkeJ. B.TudorascuD. L.HayesA.GoldsteinM. R.NguyenD. T. H.DavidsonR. J. (2014). Breathing‐based meditation decreases posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in U.S. military veterans: A randomized controlled longitudinal study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 27(4), 397-405. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21936
73.
ShafferF.GinsbergJ. P. (2017). An overview of heart rate variability metrics and norms. Frontiers in Public Health, 5, Article 258. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2017.00258
74.
ShearerA.HuntM.ChowdhuryM.NicolL. (2016). Effects of a brief mindfulness meditation intervention on student stress and heart rate variability. International Journal of Stress Management, 23(2), 232-254. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039814
75.
ShiL.ZhangD.WangL.ZhuangJ.CookR.ChenL. (2017). Meditation and blood pressure: A meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Journal of Hypertension, 35(4), 696-706. https://doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0000000000001217
76.
SmithT.W.Deits-LebehnC.WilliamsP.G.BaucomB.R.W.UchinoB.N. (2020). Toward a social psychophysiology of vagally mediated heart rate variability: Concepts and methods in self-regulation, emotion, and interpersonal processes. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 14(3), e12516. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12516
77.
SteeleC. M.AronsonJ. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797-811. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797
78.
TerryG.HayfieldN.ClarkeV.BraunV. (2017). Thematic analysis In C. Willig & W. Stainton Rogers (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research in psychology (2nd ed.; pp. 17-37). Sage.
79.
ThomasA. J.BlackmonS. K. M. (2015). The influence of the Trayvon Martin shooting on racial socialization practices of African American parents. Journal of Black Psychology, 41(1), 75-89. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798414563610
80.
TruongK.A.MuseusS.D.McGuireK.M. (2015). Vicarious racism: A qualitative analysis of experiences with secondhand racism in graduate education. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 29(2), 224-247. https://doi.org/10.1080/09518398.2015.1023234
81.
VanVoorhisC. W.MorganB. L. (2007). Understanding power and rules of thumb for determining sample sizes. Tutorials in Quantitative Methods for Psychology, 3(2), 43-50. https://doi.org/10.20982/tqmp.03.2.p043
82.
VolpeV. V.LeeD. B.HoggardL. S.RahalD. (2019). Racial discrimination and acute physiological responses among Black young adults: The role of racial identity. Journal of Adolescent Health, 64(2), 179-185. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.09.004
83.
WatsonN. N.BlackA. R.HunterC. D. (2016). African American women’s perceptions of mindfulness meditation training and gendered race-related stress. Mindfulness, 7(5), 1034-1043. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0539-3
Woods-GiscombéC. L.BlackA. R. (2010). Mind-body interventions to reduce risk for health disparities related to stress and strength among African American women: The potential of mindfulness-based stress reduction, loving-kindness, and the NTU therapeutic framework. Complementary Health Practice Review, 15(3), 115-131. https://doi.org/10.1177/1533210110386776
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
