Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

Effective leadership is critical to mission success in military organizations. However, instances of unethical and ineffective leadership remain an ongoing concern. To address the need for improved small team leadership, the U.S. Army developed the Squad Leader Development Course (SLDC) to provide junior non-commissioned officers (NCOs) with training and education on Army doctrine, ethical leadership, authentic leadership, and related competencies. Findings from a quasi-randomized controlled trial of SLDC conducted with NCOs (N = 219) found that trainees viewed SLDC as beneficial to themselves, their soldiers, and the Army. Trainees demonstrated improvements in knowledge and competencies related to leadership doctrine; fostering trust, cohesion, psychological safety within their units; and coaching and mentoring their subordinates. No significant effects of training were found with respect to ethical leadership, authentic leadership, or morale. We examine the utility of SLDC for leadership development in the Army and explore implications for military organizations globally.

Keywords

Army soldiers ethical leadership authentic leadership morale non-commissioned officer quasi-randomized controlled trial

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Adler

A. B.

Bliese

P. D.

McGurk

Hoge

C. W.

Castro

C. A.

(2011). Battlemind debriefing and battlemind training as early interventions with soldiers returning from Iraq: Randomization by platoon. Sports, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 1(S), 66–83. https://doi.org/10.1037/2157-3905.1.S.66

Adler

A. B.

Gutierrez

I. A.

Edge

H. M.

Nordstrand

A. E.

Simms

Willmund

G. D.

(2023). Peer-based intervention for acute stress reaction: Adaptations by five militaries. BMJ Military Health, 170(5), 425–429. https://doi.org/10.1136/military-2022-002344

Alvarez

A. P.

Alonso

F. M.

Mora

M. P. B.

León

J. A. M.

(2019). Authentic leadership and its relationships with work engagement and organizational citizenship behaviors in military units: The role of identification as a mediating variable. Military Psychology, 31(5), 412–424. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2019.1646078

Banks

G. C.

McCauley

K. D.

Gardner

W. L.

Guler

C. E.

(2016). A meta-analytic review of authentic and transformational leadership: A test for redundancy. Leadership Quarterly, 27(4), 634–652. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.02.006

Bates

Maechler

Bolker

Walker

(2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67(1), 1–48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v067.i01

Britt

T. W.

Dickinson

J. M.

Moore

Castro

C. A.

Adler

A. B.

(2007). Correlates and consequences of morale versus depression under stressful conditions. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 12(1), 34–47. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.12.1.34

Brown

M. E.

Treviño

L. K.

(2006). Ethical leadership: A review and future directions. The Leadership Quarterly, 17, 595–616. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.10.004

Brown

M. E.

Treviño

L. K.

(2014). Do role models matter? An investigation of role modeling as an antecedent of perceived ethical leadership. Journal of Business Ethics, 122, 587–598. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-013-1769-0

Castro

C. A.

Adler

A. B.

McGurk

Bliese

P. D.

(2012). Mental health training with soldiers four months after returning from Iraq: Randomization by platoon. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 25, 376–383. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21721

10.

Clapp-Smith

Hammond

M. M.

Vogelgesang Lester

Palanski

(2019). Promoting identity development in leadership education: A multidomain approach to developing the whole leader. Journal of Management Education, 43(1), 10–34. https://doi.org/10.1177/1052562918813190

11.

Fallesen

J. J.

Keller-Glaze

Curnow

C. K.

(2011). A selective review of leadership studies in the U.S. Army. Military Psychology, 23(5), 462–478. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2011.600181

12.

Fosse

T. H.

Skogstad

Einarsen

S. V.

Martinussen

(2019). Active and passive forms of destructive leadership in a military context: A systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 28(5), 708–722. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2019.1634550

13.

Gallus

J. A.

Walsh

B. M.

van Driel

Gouge

M. C.

Antolic

(2013). Intolerable cruelty: A multilevel examination of the impact of toxic leadership on U.S. military units and service members. Military Psychology, 25(6), 588–601. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000022

14.

Gardner

W. L.

Avolio

B. J.

Luthans

May

D. R.

Walumbwa

F. O.

(2005). “Can you see the real me?” A self-based model of authentic leader and follower development. Leadership Quarterly, 16(3), 343–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.003

15.

Gutierrez

I. A.

Adler

A. B.

(2022). Organizational context as a predictor of positive adjustment among soldiers following combat deployment. Occupational Health Science, 6(3), 451–473. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41542-022-00120-0

16.

Gutierrez

I. A.

Kincaid

Best

Adler

A. B.

(2021). Resilience training efficacy by instructor specialization: A program evaluation with Army recruits. Military Behavioral Health, 9(3), 324–334. https://doi.org/10.1080/21635781.2021.1876799

17.

Hedlund

(2016). Team learning and leadership in multinational military staff exercises. Armed Forces & Society, 43(3), 459–477. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095327X16667088

18.

Kalshoven

Den Hartog

D. N.

De Hoogh

A. H. B.

(2011). Ethical leadership at work questionnaire (ELW): Development and validation of a multidimensional measure. The Leadership Quarterly, 22, 51–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.12.007

19.

Kiluange

Rouco

J. C. D.

Silva

A. P.

Fragoso Baio

L. G.

(2024). Characteristics of leadership in a military context: Systematic literature review by PRISMA method. In Rocha

Fajardo-Toro

C. H.

Rodríguez

J. M. R.

(Eds.), Multidisciplinary International Conference of Research Applied to Defense and Security (pp. 197–208). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-8894-5_17

20.

Kim

Vandenberghe

(2020). Ethical leadership and team ethical voice and citizenship behavior in the military: The roles of team moral efficacy and ethical climate. Group & Organization Management, 45(4), 514–555. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601120920050

21.

Kolb

A. Y.

Kolb

D. A.

(2005). Learning styles and learning spaces: Enhancing experiential learning in higher education. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 4, 193–212. https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.2005.17268566

22.

Martin

S. R.

Emich

K. J.

McClean

E. J.

Woodruff

(2022). Keeping teams together: How ethical leadership moderates the effects of performance on team efficacy and social integration. Journal of Business Ethics, 176, 127–139. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-020-04685-0

23.

Masakowski

Y. R.

Petersen

M. J.

Gosling

(Eds.). (2022). Leader development for NATO multinational military operations (Technical Report TR-HFM-286). North Atlantic Treaty Organization. https://www.sto.nato.int/publications/STO%20Technical%20Reports/STO-TR-HFM-286/$$TR-HFM-286-ALL.pdf

24.

Meerits

Kivipõld

(2020). Leadership competencies of first-level military leaders. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 41(8), 953–970. https://doi.org/10.1108/LODJ-09-2019-0392

25.

Miao

Humphrey

R. H.

Qian

(2018). Emotional intelligence and authentic leadership: A meta-analysis. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 39(5), 679–690. https://doi.org/10.1108/LODJ-02-2018-0066

26.

Moreno

A. R.

Bravo

M. I. R.

García-Guiu

Lozano

L. M.

Pacheco

N. E.

Navarro-Carrillo

Valor-Segura

(2021). Effects of emerging leadership styles on engagement: A mediation analysis in a military context. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 42(5), 665–689. https://doi.org/10.1108/LODJ-05-2020-0222

27.

NCO Leadership Center of Excellence. (2024, November). NCO common core competencies (NCO-C3). https://www.ncolcoe.army.mil/Organizations/Training-Education/Division-of-Curriculum-Development/NCO-Common-Core-Competencies/#:~:text=NCO%20Common%20Core%20Competencies%20are,(MOS)%2C%20rank%2C%20or

28.

O’Keefe

D. F.

Messervey

Squires

E. C.

(2017). Promoting ethical and prosocial behavior: The combined effect of ethical leadership and coworker ethicality. Ethics & Behavior, 28(3), 235–260. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508422.2017.1365607

29.

O’Keefe

D. F.

Son Hing

L. S.

Catano

(2022). Unethical behaviour in the military: The role of supervisor ethicality, ethical climate, and ring-wing authoritarianism. Military Psychology, 35, 58–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2022.2068899

30.

Park

G. H.

Knust

S. K.

Haselhuhn

Whalen

S. J.

Deuster

P. A.

Greene

C. H.

Dretsch

M. N.

Bonvie

J. L.

Lippy

R. D.

Lunasco

T. K.

Myatt

C. A.

(2022). Advancing the practice of contemporary military performance psychology: A full-spectrum approach to psychological health and readiness. Journal of Special Operations Medicine, 22(1), 115–120. https://doi.org/10.55460/18DB-ITVE

31.

R Core Team. (2021). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://www.r-project.org

32.

Riley

R. P.

Cavanaugh

K. J.

Jones

R. L.

Fallesen

J. J.

(2017). 2016 center for Army leadership annual survey of Army leadership (CASAL): Military leader findings (DTIC Accession Number AD1056626). Center for Army Leadership.

33.

Salas

Reyes

D. L.

McDaniel

S. H.

(2018). The science of teamwork: Progress, reflections, and the road ahead. American Psychologist, 73(4), 593–600. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000334

34.

Trachik

Moscardini

E. H.

Ganulin

M. L.

McDonald

J. L.

McKeon

A. B.

Dretsch

M. N.

Tucker

R. P.

Sowden

W. J.

(2022). Perceptions of purpose, cohesion, and military leadership: A path analysis of potential primary prevention targets to mitigate suicidal ideation. Military Psychology, 34(3), 366–375. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2021.1962184

35.

U.S. Army. (2019a). Army leadership and the profession (ADP 6-22). Army Publishing Directorate.

36.

U.S. Army. (2019b). Total army sponsorship program (AR 600-8-8). https://www.armyresilience.army.mil/TASP/pdf/ARN6858_AR600_8_8_FINAL_WEB.pdf

37.

U.S. Army. (2020). Report of the Fort Hood independent review committee. https://www.army.mil/e2/downloads/rv7/forthoodreview/2020-12-03_FHIRC_report_redacted.pdf

38.

U.S. Army. (2021). Training and education development in support of the institutional domain (TP350-70-14). U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command. https://adminpubs.tradoc.army.mil/pamphlets/TP350-70-14.pdf

39.

U.S. Army. (2022). Developing leaders (FM 6-22). Army Publishing Directorate. https://armypubs.army.mil/epubs/DR_pubs/DR_a/ARN36735-FM_6-22-000-WEB-1.pdf

40.

Walumbwa

F. O.

Avolio

B. J.

Gardner

W. L.

Wernsing

T. S.

Peterson

S. J.

(2008). Authentic leadership: Development and validation of a theory-based measure. Journal of Management, 34(1), 89–126. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920630730891

41.

Watola

Woycheshin

(Eds.). (2016). Negative leadership: International perspectives. Canadian Defence Academy Press. https://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/9.823555/publication.html

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.06 MB

Developing Effective Small Team Army Leaders: A Quasi-Randomized Controlled Trial of the Squad Leader Development Course

Abstract

Keywords

Get full access to this article

References

Supplementary Material