During stabilization operations, the host nation and the international community are often confronted with a security gap, which could be a prelude to an explosive growth of crime and public disorder. In the absence of a functioning local police, an alternative is that the (international) military temporarily intervenes as interim police. This article analyzes how the Netherlands’ military performed during security gaps in three (post)conflict areas: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, and Iraq. It concludes that army units frequently were involved in interim policing and de facto operated as hybrid organizations, without leaving the military paradigm behind. Policing is generally not seen as a primary task of the military, however. To adapt to the reality of security gaps and to increase the operational effectiveness in the field of public security, the military would benefit from reflecting on their current military paradigm and on what they could learn from current policing practices.
BittnerE. (1967). The police on skid-row: A study of peace keeping. American Sociological Review, 32, 699–715.
7.
BittnerE. (1970). The functions of the police in modern society. A review of background factors, current practices, and possible role models. Rockville, MD: National Institute of Mental Health.
8.
Brocades ZaalbergT. W.Ten CateA. (2010). Mission in Al Muthanna. The Netherlands Armed Forces in Iraq: 2003-2005 [In Dutch]. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Boom.
9.
Brocades ZaalbergT. W.Ten CateA. (2012). A gentle occupation: Unraveling the Dutch Approach in Iraq, 2003-2005. Small Wars and Insurgencies, 23, 117–143.
10.
BrodeurJ. P. (2010). The policing web. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
11.
CampbellD. J.CampbellK. M. (2010). Soldiers as police officers/police officers as soldiers: Role evolution and revolution in the United States. Armed Forces & Society, 36, 327–350.
12.
CatignaniS. (2012). ‘Getting COIN’ at the tactical level in Afghanistan: Reassessing counter-insurgency adaptation in the British army. Journal of Strategic Studies, 35, 437–467.
13.
Department of Defense (NL). (2003). Interim Evaluation SFOR 2002 [In Dutch]. The Hague, the Netherlands: Defense Staff.
14.
Department of Defense (NL). (2005). Netherlands Defense Doctrine [In Dutch]. The Hague, the Netherlands: Defense Staff.
15.
Department of Defense & Department of Foreign Affairs (NL). (2005). Final Evaluation Stabilization Force Iraq (SFIR) 2003-2005 [In Dutch]. The Hague, the Netherlands: Ministry of Defense/Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
16.
de WegerM. (2006). The National Security Tasks of the Dutch Armed Forces [in Dutch]. Assen, the Netherlands: Van Gorcum.
17.
de WegerM. (2010). Striving for SYMMETRY: Constabularisation, security and security complexes. In EastonM.den BoerM.JanssensJ.MoelkerR.Vander BekenT. (Eds.), Blurring military and police roles (pp. 111–126). The Hague, the Netherlands: Eleven International Publishing.
18.
DoyleM. H. (2007). Too little, too late? Justice and security reform in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In CallC. T. (Ed.), Constructing justice and security after war (pp. 231–270). Washington, DC: U.S. Institute of Peace.
19.
DunlapC. J. (1999). The police-ization of the military. Journal of Political and Military Sociology, 27, 217–232.
20.
DziedzicM. J. (1998). Introduction. In OakleyR. B.DziedzicM. J.GoldbergE. M. (Eds.), Policing the New World order: Peace operations and public security (pp. 3–18). Washington, DC: National Defense University Press.
21.
DziedzicM. J. (2006). Kosovo. In DurchW. J. (Ed.), Twenty-first-century peace operations (pp. 319–388). Washington, DC: U.S. Institute of Peace/The Henry L. Stimson Center.
22.
DziedzicM. J.BairA. (1998). Bosnia and the international police task force. In OakleyR. B.DziedzicM. J.GoldbergE. M. (Eds.), Policing the New World order: Peace operations and public security (pp. 253–314). Washington, DC: National Defense University Press.
23.
EastonM. (2001). The Demilitarization of the Belgian Gendarmerie [In Dutch]. Brussels, Belgium: VUBPRESS.
24.
FlyvbjergB. (2001). Making social science matter. Why social inquiry fails and how it can succeed again. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
GoldsteinH. (2005). Improving policing: A problem-oriented approach. In NewburnT. (Ed.), Policing: Key readings (pp. 392–411). Cullompton, England: Willan Publishing.
27.
HeidukF. (2015). Rethinking ‘policebuilding’. Cooperation and Conflict, 50, 69–86.
28.
JakobsenP. V. (2003). Military forces and public security challenges. In PughM.Pal Singh SidhuW. (Eds.), United Nations and regional security: Europe and beyond (pp. 137–154). London, England: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
29.
JanowitzM. (1960). The professional soldier: A social and political portrait. New York, NY: The Free Press of Glencoe.
30.
JonesS. J.WilsonJ. M.RathmellA.RileyK. J. (2005). Establishing law and order after conflict. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.
31.
KilcullenD. (2006). Twenty-Eight articles: Fundamentals of company-level counterinsurgency. Military Review, May–June, 134–139.
KopelD. B.BlackmanP. M. (1997). Can soldiers be peace officers? The Waco disaster and the militarization of American Law Enforcement. Akron Law Review, 30, 619–659.
34.
KraskaP. B. (2007). Militarization and policing. Its relevance to 21st Century Police. Policing, 1, 501–513.
35.
KraskaP. B.CubellisL. J. (1997). Militarizing Mayberry and beyond: Making sense of American Paramilitary Policing. Justice Quarterly, 14, 607–629.
36.
KraskaP. B.KappelerV. E. (1997). Militarizing American police: The rise and normalization of paramilitary units. Social Problems, 44, 1–18.
37.
LevittB.MarchJ. G. (1988). Organizational learning. Annual Review of Sociology, 14, 319–340.
38.
LutterbeckD. (2004). Between police and military. The new security agenda and the rise of gendarmeries. Cooperation and Conflict, 39, 45–68.
39.
LutterbeckD. (2005). Blurring the dividing line: The convergence of internal and external security in Western Europe. European Security, 14, 231–253.
40.
MaleševicS. (2010). The sociology of war and violence. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
41.
ManningP. K. (1997). Police work: The social organization of policing. Prospect Heights, NY: Waveland Press.
42.
MillerL. (1997). Do soldiers hate peacekeeping? The case of preventive diplomacy operations in Macedonia. Armed Forces & Society, 23, 415–449.
43.
MintzbergH. (1979). The structuring of organizations. A synthesis of the research. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
44.
MoskosC. C. (1975). UN peacekeepers: The constabulary ethic and military professionalism. Armed Forces & Society, 1, 388–401.
45.
NeuteboomP. (2014). Beyond borders: The role of the Netherlands Army in public security during crisis management operations. Oirschot, the Netherlands: Wolf Legal Publishers.
46.
Netherlands Royal Army. (1998). Combat Operations. Army Doctrine Publication II, Part A: Fundamentals [In Dutch]. The Hague, the Netherlands: Army Headquarters.
47.
Netherlands Royal Army. (1999). Peace Operations: Army Doctrine Publication III [In Dutch]. The Hague, the Netherlands: Army Headquarters.
48.
Netherlands Royal Army. (2003). Combat Operations. Army Doctrine Publication II, Part C: Combat Operations against an Irregular Opponent [In Dutch]. The Hague, the Netherlands: Army Headquarters.
49.
Netherlands Royal Army. (2014). Land Operations: Doctrine Publication 3.2 [In Dutch]. Utrecht, the Netherlands: Land Warfare Centre.
50.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization. (2010). Allied joint doctrine for peace support operations: AJP-3.4.1. (Ratification Draft). Brussels, Belgium: Author.
51.
PeakK. J.GlensorR. W. (1999). Community policing and problem solving. Strategies and practices. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
52.
PeritoR. M. (2004). Where is the lone ranger when we need him? America’s search for a postconflict stability force. Washington, DC: U.S. Institute of Peace Press.
53.
PacheA. C.SantosF. (2013). Inside the hybrid organization: Selective coupling as a response to competing institutional logics. Academy of Management Journal, 56, 972–1001.
54.
Pion-BerlinD. (2016). A tale of two missions: Mexican military police patrols versus high-value targeted operations. Armed Forces & Society. doi:10.1177/0095327X16631084
55.
RietjensS. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: Seeing the patterns in the fog of civil-military interaction. In SoetersJ.ShieldsP.RietjensS. (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of research methods in military studies (pp. 129–141). New York, NY: Routledge.
56.
SegalD. R.Foley MeekerB. (1985). Peacekeeping, warfighting, and professionalism: Attitude, organization and change among combat soldiers on constabulary duty. Journal of Political and Military Sociology, 13, 167–181.
57.
ShieldsP.SoetersJ. (2015). Peaceweaving: Jane addams, positive peace, and public administration. American Review of Public Administration. doi:10.1177/0275074015589629
58.
SitkinS. B. (1996). Learning through failure: The strategy of small losses. In CohenM. D.SproulL. S. (Eds.), Organisational learning (pp. 541–577). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
59.
SkoganW. G. (2005). Community policing. In SullivanL. E.RosenM. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of law enforcement (Vol. 1, pp. 74–78). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
60.
SkoganW. G.FreydlK. (Eds.). (2004). Fairness and effectiveness in policing: The evidence. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
61.
SkoganW. G.HartnettS. M. (2005). Community policing in Chicago. In NewburnT. (Ed.), Policing: Key readings (pp. 428–441). Cullompton, England: Willan Publishing.
62.
SkoganW. G.RothJ. A. (2004). Introduction. In SkoganW. G. (Ed.), Community policing. Can it work? (pp. xvii–xxxiv). Wadsworth, OH: Thomson.
63.
SkolnickJ. H.BayleyD. H. (1986). The new blue line. New York, NY: Free Press.
64.
SoetersJ. (2000). Culture in uniformed organizations. In AshkanasyN. M.WilderomC. P. M.PetersonM. F. (Eds.), Handbook of organizational culture and climate (pp. 465–481). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
65.
SoetersJ. (2008). Ambidextrous military: Coping with contractions of new security policies. In den BoerM.de WildeJ. (Eds.), The viability of human security (pp. 109–124). Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Amsterdam University Press.
66.
SoetersJ. (2016). Organizational cultures in the military. In CaforioG.NuciariM. (Eds.), Handbook of the sociology of the military. New York, NY: Springer.
67.
Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe. (1996, 1216). SACEUR OPPLAN 10406 ‘Joint Guard’, Final, p. 10. Retrieved from SSA, Digital Archive SFOR.
68.
TrojanowitzR.BuequerouxB. (1990). Community policing: A contemporary perspective. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing.
69.
United Nations Mission in Kosovo Police. (2001). Annual Report 2000. Pristina: UNMIK Police Commissioner’s Office of Press and Information.
70.
VennessonP.WiesnerI. (2014). Process tracing in case studies. In SoetersJ.ShieldsP.RietjensS. (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of research methods in military studies (pp. 92–103). New York, NY: Routledge.
71.
VogelaarA. L. W.KramerF. J. (2004). Mission command in Dutch peace support missions. Armed Forces & Society, 30, 409–431.
72.
VoorhoeveJ. (2007). From war to the rule of law. Peacebuilding after violent conflicts. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Amsterdam University Press.
