Numerous studies have examined how armed forces have adapted their organizational and force structures to become more cost-effective, flexible, and deployable. However, comparatively few studies have looked at how these systemic influences affect attitudes toward military employment. With reference to findings of a survey conducted among middle-ranking officers in the United Kingdom, Canada, South Africa, and Germany, the attitudes of officers toward their current employment is examined within a comparative context, by referring to the impact of organizational restructuring on their careers and on commitment to military service; issues relating to pay, service, and work conditions; trust in military leadership's ability to defend their interests; and the perceived need for some form of independent representation. The study concludes that the present discontent within the ranks is creating a kind of professional or institutional disunity, which may necessitate a revision of how employee relations are managed within armed forces.
Peace Support Operations is a collective term referring to missions ranging from peacemaking, to peacekeeping, to more robust peace enforcement missions.
2.
James Burk, "Thinking Through the End of the Cold War," in The Adaptive Military: Armed Forces in a Turbulent World, 2nd ed, ed. J. Burk ( New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1998), 1.
3.
Phillipe Manigart, "Restructuring the Armed Forces," in Handbook of the Sociology of the Military, ed. G. Caforio ( New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum, 2003), 330-43.
4.
Charles Moskos, Johan Alan Williams, and David Segal, eds., The Postmodern Military: Armed Forces After the Cold War ( New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).
5.
Christopher Dandeker and Alise Weibull, Facing Uncertainty: Flexible Forces for the Twenty-First Century ( Karlstad, Sweden: Klaria Tryckeri, 1999), 17.
6.
Charles Moskos and James Burk, "The Postmodern Military," in The Military in New Times: Adapting Armed Forces to a Turbulent World, 2nd ed., ed. J. Burk (Boulder, CO : Westview, 1994), 149.
7.
Burk, "Thinking Through,"34.
8.
Dandeker and Weibull, "Facing Uncertainty."
9.
Dandeker and Weibull, "Facing Uncertainty,"30-33; Manigart, "Restructuring the Armed Forces,"329.
10.
Moskos, Williams, and Segal , "Armed Forces,"5.
11.
Sid Kessler and Fred Bayliss, Contemporary British IndustrialRelations (London: Macmillian, 1998), 25-26.
12.
Christopher Dandeker et al. Bett and Beyond: A Reaction, Response and Commentary. (Lancaster, UK: Center for Defence and International Studies, 1997), 40.
13.
Manigart, "Restructuring the Armed Forces," 329; Moskos and Burk, "The Postmodern Military," 149.
14.
Dandeker and Weibull, "Facing Uncertainty,"38.
15.
Richard Sennet , The Erosion of Character: The Personal Consequences of Work in the New Capitalism (New York: Norton, 1998), 124-8.
16.
Gerald Frost, "How to Destroy an Army: The Cultural Subversion of Britain's Armed Forces," in New People Strategies for the British Armed Force, eds. Alex Alexandrou, Richard Bartle, and Richard Holmes (London: Frank Cass, 2002), 42-43.
17.
Bernard Boene , "How `Unique' Should the Military Be?"European Journal of SociologyXXXI, (1) 1990: 315.
18.
C.D. Bristow, "The Psychological Contract," in Management in the Public Sector: A Uniform Perspective, eds. Alex Alexandrou and Richard Bartle ( Swindon, UK: Cranfield University Press, 1999), 1-22.
19.
Charles Moskos , "Institutional/Occupational Trends in Armed Forces: An Update,"Armed Forces and Society12, 3 ( 1986): 379.
Richard Bartle, "Independent Representation in the Armed Forces," in Human Resource Management in the Armed Forces, eds. Alex Alexandrou and Richard Bartle (Swindon, UK: Cranfield University Press , 1999), 11.
22.
Gwyn Harries-Jenkins, "Trade Unions in Armed Forces," in Military Unions: U.S. Trends and Issues, eds. W. Taylor, R. J. Arango, and R. Lockwood (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1977), 61.
23.
Leonard Wong and Jeffrey McNally, "Downsizing the Army: Some Policy Implications Affecting the Survivors,"Armed Forces and Society20, 2 (1994): 213.
24.
Richard Bartle , "The Army in the 21st Century-Addressing the Final Taboo?"RUSI Journal, June 1998, 45-47.
25.
Jacques Van Doorn, "The Officer Corps: A Fusion of Profession and Organization,"European Journal of Sociology6, 2 (1965), 269.
26.
Moskos, "Institutional Occupational Trends,"379.
27.
Henning Sorensen , "New Perspectives on the Military Profession: The I/O Model and Esprit de Corps Re-evaluated,"Armed Forces and Society20, 4 (1994): 601.
28.
Bernard Snoep , "EUROMIL Participates in Hearing on Human Rights in the Armed Forces,"Address by the President of EUROMIL at the Hearing of PACE's Legal Affairs Committee, April 20, 2005, http://www.euromil.org/newsitem.asp?newsid=47 (accessed September 29, 2005); International Labour Organization, "World Labour Report 1997-98: Industrial Relations, Democracy and Social Stability,"http://www.ilo.org/public/english/dialogue/ifpdial/publ/wlr97/annex/notes.htm (accessed October 5, 2005),12-16.
29.
Guiseppe Caforio, ed., " Conclusion: Themes and Issues of the Sociology of the Military," in Handbook of the Sociology of the Military (New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum, 2003), 440.
Richard Bartle , "Independent Representation: The Time is Right," in New People Strategies for the British Armed Forces, ed. A Alexandrou, R. Bartle, and R. Holmes (London: Frank Cass, 2001), 144-6.
32.
Paul Blyton and Peter Turnbull, The Dynamics of Employee Relations (London: Macmillan, 1998).
33.
David Farnham and John Pimlott, Understanding Industrial Relations (Southhampton/London: Bath Press, 1995), 46.
34.
Ibid., 45.
35.
Ibid., 46.
36.
Euromil, "Our Mission: Representing Human Rights, Fundamental Freedoms and Professional Interests of Military Personnel in Europe,"http://www.Euromil.org/newsitem.asp?newsid=9 (accessed July 3, 2005).
37.
Richard Bartle and Lindy Heinecken, eds., Military Unionism in the Post-Cold War Era: A Future Reality? (London: Routledge, 2006).
38.
Bartle, "Independent Representation,"139-58.
39.
This article is based on my PhD dissertation titled, Military Unionism and the New Dynamics of Employee Relations in the post Cold War Era: A Four Country Comparative Study, Department of War Studies, King's College, University of London, 2006.
40.
Michael Salamon, Industrial Relations: Theory and Practice, 4th ed. (London: Prentice Hall, 2000), 4-25.
41.
Christopher Dandeker, "The United Kingdom: The Overstretched Military," in The Postmodern Military: Armed Forces after the Cold War, eds. Charles Moskos, John Allen Williams, and David Segal (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 33; also see Franklin Pinch, "Canada: Managing Change with Shrinking Resources," in The Postmodern Military: Armed Forces after the Cold War, eds. Charles Moskos, John Allen Williams, and David Segal (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 157.
42.
German Ministry of Defence, "The Bundeswehr in 2002: The Current Situation and Perspectives,"http://www.bundeswehr.de/pic/pdf/broschueren/bundeswehr_2002_eng.pdf (Accessed April 8, 2005).
43.
Deutscher Bundeswehrverband, "Stationerung muss Zukunftsicher Sein" [Postings Must be Ensured of a Future] . http://dbwv.interd.nsf (Accessed 13 April 2005).
44.
David McCormick, The Downsized Warrior: America's Army in Transition (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 139.
45.
"Vereinbarung Weist Richtigen Weg" [Agreement Shows the Right Way], Die Bundeswehr6, 6 (2001): 6.
46.
Only after 2000, when the findings of two Commissions of the Bundeswehr were released, has substantial reform occurred. This included not only more cuts in personnel numbers but also the overall reduction in the size of the Bundeswehr, force restructuring, and the implementation of business practices to improve efficiency and cost-effectiveness; see Paul Klein, "The Reform of the Bundeswehr," in The European Armed Forces in Transition: A Comparative Analysis, eds. Franz Kernic, Karl Haltiner, and Paul Klein (Frankfurt, Germany: Verlag, 2005), 145-55.
47.
Due to past racial imbalances within the armed forces, the government has initiated an assertive affirmative action campaign to advance blacks to senior noncommissioned and officer ranks.
48.
Bristow, "The Psychological Contract."
49.
Frost, "How to Destroy an Army," 37-48; also see Donna Winslow, "Canadian Society and Its Army," Canadian Military Journal, Winter (2004): 15.
50.
"Summary: Fundamental Renewal, Common Security and the Future of the Bundeswehr,"http://sicherheitspolitik.bundeswehr.de/12/3/1.php (accessed April 12, 2005).
51.
Although recruitment is not a problem, the retention of skilled military personnel who are leaving to serve in other armed forces (including in Australia and the United Kingdom) or who join private military companies is a major challenge.
Andy Bolt, "AFOPS, Work-Life Balance and the Problems of Recruitment and Retention," in Defence Management in Uncertain Times, eds. Terry McConville and Richard Holmes (London: Frank Cass, 2004), 158.
54.
Bartle, "Independent Representation."
55.
Bartle, "Independent Representation,"146; also see Mike Capstick , Kelly Farley, Bill Wild, and Mike Parkes, Canada's Soldiers: Military Ethos and Canadian Values in the 21st Century (Ottawa, Ontario: National Defence Headquarters, Canada National Defense, 2005), 41.
56.
The survey among U.K. officers was conducted before the British Armed Forces Federation was established. Thus, there may have even been a shift in attitudes since this survey was conducted.
57.
In Canada, the Standing Committee on National Defence and Veterans Association has actively monitored and ensured that the recommendations to improve the quality of life of members of the Canadian Forces are implemented.
58.
South African National Defence Union is the only recognized union in the South African National Defence Force, with a membership of around 18,000. The South African Security Forces Union has met the 5,000 member threshold for registration, but not the target of 15,000 membership required for recognition by the Department of Defence.
59.
Michael Smith , "Army Officers set up Union to Vent War Anger,"The Sunday Times, May 21, 2006, http://www./timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2087-2190144,00.html (accessed July 4, 2006).
60.
Snoep, "EUROMIL Participates."
61.
A. Gillan and R. Norton-Taylor , "Soldiers demand trade federation,"The Guardian, January 26, 2006, 1.
62.
The unions have often brought matters to the attention of the Parliamentary Defence Committees, which have prompted numerous ministerial enquiries or revision of existing policies.
63.
Maja Barb and Ljubica Jelusic , "Military Unionism in Slovenia: A way ahead for soldiers' interests? in eds. Richard Bartle and Lindy Heinecken, Military Unionism in the Post-Cold War Era: A Future Reality? ( London: Routledge, 2006), 101-18.
64.
Jenkins, "Trade Unions."
65.
A. Ward, "The British Army and Civilian Trade Unions: A Marriage of the Incompatible?"The Political Quarterly50: 1970, 461-72.
66.
Jacques Van Doorn, The Soldier and Social Change (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1975) 42.
67.
Morris Janowitz , "From Institutional to Occupational: The Need for Conceptual Continuity,"Armed Forces and Society4, 1 (1977): 51.
68.
S.E. Finer, The Man on Horseback: The Role of the Military in Politics ( New York: Praeger, 1962).
