Phenolic resins are useful additives that provide various functions for rubber compounds during compounding and vulcanization, as well as after cure. Natural resins are considered as strong alternatives to synthetic ones due to environmental concern. Liquidambar Orientalis Mills is an endemic plant and grows in many different geographies including Turkey. In this study, the phenolic resin obtained from Liquidambar Orientalis Mills has been studied regarding its functions in a generic natural rubber compound. It was incorporated into the rubber compound with and without selected gum and phenolic resins so that mainly obtaining competitive adhesion properties. Both individual and collaborative effects of the natural resin were evaluated. Rheological, thermal, morphological, mechanical and adhesion properties of the compounds were studied comparatively along with the non-linear cure kinetics. Liquidambar Orientalis Mills has been found to be a good alternative to both gum and phenolic resins in rubber compounds. Besides, significant improvement could be achieved for particularly rubber–steel adhesion.
CiesielskiA. An Introduction to Rubber Technology. Shropshire: Rapra Technology; 1996.
2.
DickJS. General test methods. In: DickJS (ed). Basic Rubber Testing: Selecting Methods for a Rubber Test Program. West Conshohocken: ASTM International; 2003, pp. 17–57.
3.
CoranAY. Vulcanization. In: MarkJEErmanBEirichFR (eds). Science and Technology of Rubber. USA: Elsevier; 2005, pp. 321–364.
4.
PohBTOngLN. Adhesion properties of styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR)/standard malaysian rubber (SMR L)-based adhesives in the presence of phenol formaldehyde resin. Express Polym Lett2007; 1: 654–659.
5.
LiZLiYWanJ, et al.Static and dynamic adhesive properties between continuous basalt fibre cords and NR/SBR matrix tackified by p-octylphenolic resins. Int J Adhes Adhes2018; 85: 1–7.
6.
Rajesh KumarSAsserefPMDhanasekaranJ, et al.A new approach with prepregs for reinforcing nitrile rubber with phenolic and benzoxazine resins. RSC Adv2014; 4: 12526–12533.
7.
PekachakiHMTaghvaei-GanjaliSMotieeF, et al.Application of calixarene derivatives as tackifier resin in rubber compounds for tire applications. Rubber Chem Technol2019; 92: 467–480.
8.
RodgersBWaddellW. The science of rubber compounding. In: MarkJEErmanBEirichF (eds). The Science and Technology of Rubber. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2013, pp. 417–471.
9.
FisherJD. Alkyl phenol resins in adhesive and rubber applications. In: PilatoL (ed). Phenolic Resins: A Century of Progress. Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 2010, pp. 439–450.
10.
CardonaFKin-TakALFedrigoJ. Novel phenolic resins with improved mechanical and toughness properties. J Appl Polym Sci2012; 123: 2131–2139.
11.
BasakGCBandyopadhyayABhowmickAK. Effect of tackifier compatibility and blend viscoelasticity on peel strength behavior of vulcanized EPDM rubber co-cured with unvulcanized rubber. Int J Adhes Adhes2010; 30: 489–499.
12.
KumarKDTsouAHBhowmickAK. Interplay between bulk viscoelasticity and surface energy in autohesive tack of rubber-tackifier blends. J Polym Sci B Polym Phys2010; 48: 972–982.
13.
ÖztürkMÇelikAGüvensenA, et al.Ecology of tertiary relict endemic Liquidambar orientalis Mill. forests. Ecol Manage2008; 256: 510–518.
14.
AljesriZAlmaMHGöçeriA, et al.Application areas of sweetgum (Liquidambar orientalis L.). In: 3rd Internatioal Non-wood Forest Products Symposium, Kahramanmaraş, Turkey, 8–10 May 2014, pp. 572–577.
15.
ArslanMBŞahinHT. A forgotten forest product source: Anatolian sweetgum tree (Liquidambar orientalis Miller). J Bartın Fac For2016; 18: 103–117.
16.
HafizoǧluHReunanenMIstekA. Chemical constituents of balsam from Liquidambar orientalis. Holzforschung1996; 50: 116–120.
17.
DuruMECakirAHarmandarM. Composition of the volatile oils isolated from the leaves of Liquidambar orientalis Mill. var. orientalis and L. orientalis var. integriloba from Turkey. Flavour Fragr J2002; 17: 95–98.
18.
FernandezXLizzani-CuvelierLLoiseauAM, et al.Chemical composition of the essential oils from Turkish and Honduras styrax. Flavour Fragr J2005; 20: 70–73.
19.
SaraçNŞenB. Antioxidant, mutagenic, antimutagenic activities, and phenolic compounds of Liquidambar orientalis Mill. var. orientalis. Ind Crops Prod2014; 53: 60–64.
20.
DemirDÖzdemirSCeylanS, et al.Electrospun composite nanofibers based on poly (ε-caprolactone) and styrax liquidus (Liquidambar orientalis miller) as a wound dressing: Preparation, characterization, biological and cytocompatibility results. J Polym Environ. Epub ahead of print 2022. DOI: 10.1007/s10924-022-02376-7.
21.
KamalMRSourourS. Kinetics and thermal characterization of thermoset cure. Polym Eng Sci1973; 13: 59–64.
ArrillagaAZalduaAMAtxurraRM, et al.Techniques used for determining cure kinetics of rubber compounds. Eur Polym J2007; 43: 4783–4799.
24.
KhangTHAriffZM. Vulcanization kinetics study of natural rubber compounds having different formulation variables. J Therm Anal Calorim2012; 109: 1545–1553.
25.
MarzoccaAJCervenySMéndezJM. Some considerations concerning the dynamic mechanical properties of cured styrene-butadiene rubber/polybutadiene blends. Polym Int2000; 49: 216–222.
26.
MarzoccaJGoyanesS. An analysis of the influence of the accelerator/sulfur ratio in the cure reaction and the uniaxial stress-strain behavior of SBR. J Appl Polym Sci2004; 91: 2601–2609.
27.
VennemannN.Characterization of thermoplastic elastomers by means of temperature scanning stress relaxation measurements. In: El-SonbatiAZ (ed). Thermoplastic elastomers. Crotia: InTech; 2012, pp. 347–371.
28.
NakaramontriYNakasonCKummerlöweC, et al.Effects of in-situ functionalization of carbon nanotubes with bis(triethoxysilylpropyl) tetrasulfide (TESPT) and 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) on properties of epoxidized natural rubber–carbon nanotube composites. Polym Eng Sci2015; 55: 2500–2510.
29.
ÜnügülTKaraağaçB. Vulcanization of chlorinated polyethylene/chloroprene rubber compounds at lower temperatures in the presence of reactive silanes. J Appl Polym Sci2021; 138: 50544. DOI: 10.1002/app.50544.
30.
KaraağaçBCengizSCBayramT, et al.Identification of temperature scanning stress relaxation behaviors of new grade ethylene propylene diene elastomers. Adv Polym Technol2018; 37: 3027–3037.
31.
ÖncelŞKurtoğluBKaraağaçB. An alternative antioxidant for sulfur-vulcanized natural rubber: Henna. J Elastomers Plast2019; 51: 440–456.
32.
ŞenMAksütDKaraağaçB. The effect of ionizing radiation on the temperature scanning stress relaxation properties of nitrile-butadiene rubber elastomers reinforced by lignin. Radiat Phys Chem2020; 168: 108582. DOI: 10.1016/j.radphyschem.2019.108582.
33.
FloryPJRehnerJ. Statistical mechanics of cross-linked polymer networks I. Rubberlike elasticity. J Chem Phys1943; 11: 512–520.
34.
López-ManchadoMAHerreroBArroyoM. Preparation and characterization of organoclay nanocomposites based on natural rubber. Polym Int2003; 52: 1070–1077.
35.
ValentínJLCarretero-GonzálezJMora-BarrantesI, et al.Uncertainties in the determination of cross-link density by equilibrium swelling experiments in natural rubber. Macromolecules2008; 41: 4717–4729.
36.
KaraağaçB.Use of ground pistachio shell as alternative filler in natural rubber/styrene–butadiene rubber-based rubber compounds. Polym Compos2014; 35: 245–252.
37.
AkibaMHashimAS. Vulcanization and crosslinking in elastomers. Prog Polym Sci1997; 22: 475–521.
ChoughSHChangDH. Kinetics of sulfur vulcanization of NR, BR, SBR, and their blends using a rheometer and DSC. J Appl Polym Sci1996; 61: 449–454.
40.
DickJSPawlowskiH. Applications for the curemeter maximum cure rate in rubber compound development process control and cure kinetic studies. Polym Test1996; 15: 207–243.
41.
HanISChungCBKangSJ, et al.A kinetic model of reversion type cure for rubber compounds. Polym1998; 22: 223–230.
42.
de SousaFDBScuracchioCH. Vulcanization behavior of NBR with organically modified clay. J Elastomers Plast2012; 44: 263–272.
43.
MilaniGMilaniF. Kinetic model for S-TBBS-DPG NR vulcanization: Extrapolation from S-TBBS and S-DPG experimental data. J Theor Comput Chem2016; 15: 1–33.
44.
ClémentFBokobzaLMonnerieL. Investigation of the Payne effect and its temperature dependence on silica-filled polydimethylsiloxane networks. Part I: Experimental results. Rubber Chem Technol2005; 78: 211–231.
45.
WangJHamedGRUmetsuK, et al.The Payne effect in double network elastomers. Rubber Chem Technol2005; 78: 76–83.
46.
CaoXXuCWangY, et al.New nanocomposite materials reinforced with cellulose nanocrystals in nitrile rubber. Polym Test2013; 32: 819–826.
47.
DuddeyJE. Resins. In: RodgersB (ed). Rubber Compounding: Chemistry and Applications. NewYork: CRC Press; 2004, pp. 424–463.
48.
PatilPYVan OoijWJ. Mechanistic study of the role of one-component resins in rubber-to-brass bonding in tires. Rubber Chem Technol2004; 77: 891–913.
49.
PatilPYVan OoijWJ. Mechanism of improved aged rubber-to-brass adhesion using one-component resins. Rubber Chem Technol2005; 78: 155–173.
50.
ShybiAAVargheseSVargheseN, et al.Solvent-based polychloroprene contact adhesives: effect of tackifier. J Adhes Sci Technol2022; 36: 21–34.
51.
LorenzOParksCR. The crosslinking efficiency of some vulcanizing agents in natural rubber. J Polym Sci1961; 50: 299–312.
52.
BornsteinDPazurRJ. The sulfur reversion process in natural rubber in terms of crosslink density and crosslink density distribution. Polym Test2020; 88: 106524.
53.
KimDYParkJWLeeDY, et al.Correlation between the crosslink characteristics and mechanical properties of natural rubber compound via accelerators and reinforcement. Polymers (Basel)2020; 12: 1–14.
54.
PohBTChewCE. Effect of kaolin on adhesion property of epoxidized natural rubber-based pressure-sensitive adhesive using gum rosin as the tackifier. J Elastomers Plast2009; 41: 447–456.
55.
PohBTGanCF. Viscosity and peel strength of magnesium oxide-filled adhesive prepared from epoxidized natural rubber (ENR 25). Polym - Plast Technol Eng2010; 49: 191–194.
56.
PohBTSyed PutraSZF. Viscosity, shear strength, and peel strength on poly(ethylene terephthalate) of (natural rubber)-based adhesives containing hybrid tackifiers. J Vinyl Addit Technol2011; 17: 209–212.
57.
KoleyRKasilingamRSahooS, et al.Synthesis and characterization of phenol furfural resin from moringa oleifera gum and biophenol and its application in styrene butadiene rubber. Ind Eng Chem Res2019; 58: 18519–18532.
58.
LiuYWangSLiX, et al.Effect of rosin resin on the properties of natural rubber/polyester layered fibers. J Macromol Sci B Phys2021; 60: 124–135.
