The governments of Hugo Chávez (Venezuela), Evo Morales (Bolivia), and Rafael Correa (Ecuador) share strategies, policies, and discourses that contrast with those of the center-leftists in power in Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay as well as the social democratic, socialist, and classical populist experiences of the past. All three governments have triumphed at the polls with large majorities, rely on the ongoing mobilization of their followers, and embrace radical democracy based on a strong executive branch and direct popular participation in decision making as opposed to corporatist mechanisms. The three governments have been characterized by steady radicalization, their movements consist of multiclass alliances, and their economic policies have diversified commercial and technological relations. They have also established close ties with neighboring center-left governments and have promoted unity arrangements in the continent to resolve political disputes that exclude the United States. Their movements have fashioned a new narrative of nationhood that links radical goals and nationalist sentiment with traditions of political and social struggle.
VictorAlvarez R.2010Del estado burocrático al estado comunal: La transición al socialismo de la revolución bolivariana. Caracas: Centro Internacional Miranda.
2.
ArditiBenjamín2010“Arguments about the left: a post-liberal politics?,” in CameronMaxwell A.HershbergEric (eds.), Latin America’s Left Turn: Politics, Policies, and Trajectories of Change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
3.
Beasley-MurrayJonCameronMaxwell A.HershbergEric2010 “Latin America’s left turn: a tour d’horizon,” in CameronMaxwell A.HershbergEric (eds.), Latin America’s Left Turn: Politics, Policies, and Trajectories of Change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
4.
BilbaoLuis2008Venezuela en revolución: Renacimiento del socialismo. Buenos Aires: Ediciones Le Monde Diplomatique.
5.
Blanco MuñozAgustín1998Habla el comandante. Caracas: UCV.
6.
CastañedaJorge G.2006 “Latin America’s left turn.” Foreign Affairs85(3): 28–43.
7.
CastañedaJorge G.MoralesMarco A. (eds.) 2008Leftovers: Tales of the Latin American Left. New York and London: Routledge.
8.
ConaghanCatherine M.2008 “Ecuador: Correa’s plebiscitary presidency.” Journal of Democracy19(2): 46–60.
9.
CorreaRafael2009–2010 “Building socialism for the 21st century in Ecuador” (interview by Helen Yaffe). Fight Racism! Fight Imperialism [Revolutionary Communist Group] 212 (December–January).
10.
CrabtreeJohn2008 “Bolivia: playing by new rules,” in LievesleyGeraldineLudlamSteve (eds.), Reclaiming Latin America: Experiments in Radical Social Democracy. London: Zed Books.
11.
CuratoNicole2010 “Venezuela: democratic possibilities,” in HoweBrendanPopovskiVesselinNotarasMark (eds.), Democracy in the South: Participation, the State, and the People. Tokyo: United Nations University Press.
DominguezFrancisco2008 “The Latin Americanization of the politics of emancipation,” in LievesleyGeraldineLudlamSteve (eds.), Reclaiming Latin America: Experiments in Radical Social Democracy. London: Zed Books.
14.
DoshPaulKligermanNicole2009 “Correa vs. social movements: showdown in Ecuador.” NACLA: Report on the Americas42 (5): 21–24.
15.
EllnerSteve1999 “The heyday of radical populism in Venezuela and its aftermath,” in ConniffMichael L. (ed.), Populism in Latin America. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
16.
EllnerSteve2008Rethinking Venezuelan Politics: Class, Conflict, and the Chávez Phenomenon. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
17.
EllnerSteve2011 “Venezuela’s social-based democratic model: innovations and limitations.” Journal of Latin American Studies43(3).
18.
FigueraOscar2010 “Aun no hay suficiente conciencia política del papel que debe jugar la clase obrera en la revolución” (interview with the president of the Partido Comunista de Venezuela). Tribuna Popular, no. 177 (June).
19.
FrenchJohn D.2010 “Many lefts, one path? Chávez and Lula,” in CameronMaxwell A.HershbergEric (eds.), Latin America’s Left Turn: Politics, Policies, and Trajectories of Change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
20.
García LineraÁlvaro2010 “Controlling state power: an interview with Vice President Álvaro García Linera” (by Linda Farthing). Latin American Perspectives37(4): 30–33.
21.
GeddesMike2010 “The Bolivian road to socialism.” Red Pepper, September.
22.
HarneckerMarta2007Rebuilding the Left. New York: Zed Books.
23.
HarneckerMarta2008 “The community councils and popular power,” in McllroyJimWynterCoral (eds.), Voices from Venezuela: Behind the Bolivarian Revolution. Chippendale, Australia: Resistance Books.
24.
HarneckerMarta2010 “Latin America and twenty-first-century socialism: inventing to avoid mistakes.” Monthly Review62(3): 3–83.
25.
HawkinsKirk A.2010Venezuela’s Chavismo and Populism in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
26.
HedgesChris2010The Death of the Liberal Class. New York: Nation Books.
27.
HershbergEric2010 “Latin America’s left turn: the impact of the external environment,” in CameronMaxwell A.HershbergEric (eds.), Latin America’s Left Turn: Politics, Policies, and Trajectories of Change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
28.
HyltonForrestThompsonSinclair2007Revolutionary Horizons: Past and Present in Bolivian Politics. London: Verso Press.
29.
KatzClaudio2008Las disyuntivas de la izquierda en América Latina. Buenos Aires: Ediciones Luxemburg.
30.
KohlBenjaminFarthingLinda2006Impasse in Bolivia: Neoliberal Hegemony and Popular Resistance. London: Zed Books.
31.
LaclauErnesto1978Política e ideología en la teoría marxista: Capitalismo, fascismo, populismo. Mexico City: Siglo Veintiuno Editores. 2005 On Populist Reason. London: Verso.
32.
LebowitzMichael A.2006Build it Now: Socialism for the Twenty-first Century. New York: Monthly Review Press. 2010 “The spectre of socialism for the 21st century.” http://links.org.au/node/503.
33.
Madrid RaúlL.HunterWendyWeylandKurt2010 “The policies and performance of the contestatory and moderate left,” in WeylandKurt GerhardMadridRául L.HunterWendy (eds.), Leftist Governments in Latin America: Successes and Shortcomings. New York: Cambridge University Press.
34.
MariáteguiJosé Carlos1970Siete ensayos de interpretación de la realidad peruana. Montevideo: Biblioteca de Marcha.
35.
MottaSara C.2009 “Old tools and new movements in Latin America: political science as gatekeeper or intellectual illuminator?”Latin American Politics and Society51(1): 31–56.
36.
MottaSara C.ChenLaiz R.2010 “Re-inventing the left in Latin America: critical perspectives from below.” MS.
37.
MurilloMaría Victoria2001Labor Unions, Partisan Coalitions, and Market Reforms in Latin America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
PetrasJames2008América Latina: Movimientos, cambios y gobiernos de centroizquierda. Caracas: Monte Avila.
40.
PosteroNancy2010 “Morales’s MAS government: building indigenous popular hegemony in Bolivia.” Latin American Perspectives37(3): 18–34.
41.
RabyD. L.2006Democracy and Revolution: Latin America and Socialism Today. London: Pluto Press.
42.
RockefellerStuart Alexander2007 “Dual power in Bolivia: movement and government since the election of 2005.” Urban Anthropology36(3): 161–193.
43.
Ruiz ArrietaGloria2010 “La extinción de ‘lo minero’? Construcción de demandas y memoria social entre los trabajadores mineros de Huanuni,” in HernándezJuan LuisArmidaMarista GabrielaBartoliniAugusto Alberto (eds.), Bolivia: Conflicto y cambio social (1985–2009). Buenos Aires: Editorial Newen Mapu.
44.
SmithAmy Erica2009 “Legitimate grievances: preferences for democracy, system support, and political participation in Bolivia.” Latin American Research Review
44(3): 102–126.
45.
WoodsAlan2008Reformismo o revolución: Marxismo y socialismo del siglo XXI, respuesta a Heinz Dieterich. Madrid: Fundación Federico Engels.
