An analysis of the Andean dynamics of ethnicity and class in historical perspective with a focus on political institutions, decision making, and organizational structure at the communal and subregional levels reveals that, in the Andean context, ethnicity and class are inextricably linked in a societal dynamic that is closely mirrored in the two main organizations representing indigenous people in the Bolivian highlands. As a result, the main differences in organization, representation, and decision-making patterns manifest themselves within organizations, between the higher and lower levels of the hierarchy, rather than between the two organizations. The two organizations cover the same social, economic, and cultural realities; they perform largely the same practical and symbolic functions and occupy the same position in relation to the state. At the communal and subregional levels, the functioning of authority, decision-making patterns, and organizational structures are highly similar in the two organizations, and so are their overarching organizational structures.
Alberti, G. and Enrique Mayer (eds.) 1974Reciprocidad e intercambio en los Andes. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos.
2.
Albó, Xavier1994 "And from Kataristas to MNRistas? The surprising and bold alliance between Aymaras and neoliberals in Bolivia," in D. Van Cott (ed.), Indigenous Peoples and Democracy in Latin America. London: Macmillan.
3.
1995 "El resurgir de la identidad étnica: desafíos prácticos y teóricos ," in J. J. Klor de Alva et al. (eds.), De palabra y obra en el nuevo mundo, vol. 4. Madrid: Siglo XXI.
4.
1997Indígenas en el poder local. La Paz: SNPP.
5.
2002 "Bolivia: from Indian and campesino leaders to councillors and parliamentary deputies," in R. Sieder (ed.), Mulitculturalism in Latin America: Indigenous Rights, Diversity, and Democracy. Basingstoke, UK, and New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
6.
2004 "Ethnic identity and politics in the Central Andes: the cases of Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru," in J. M. Burt and P. Mauceri (eds.), Politics in the Andes: Identity, Conflict, Reform. Pittsburgh : University of Pittsburgh Press.
7.
Assadourain, Carlos S.1995 "Exchange in the ethnic territories between 1530 and 1567: the visitas of Huánaco and Chucuito," in B. Larson and O. Harris (eds.), Ethnicity, Markets, and Migration in the Andes: At the Crossroads of History and Anthropology. Durham, NC, and London: Duke University Press.
8.
Cadena, Marisol de la1995 "Women are more Indian: ethnicity and gender in a community near Cuzco," in B. Larson and O. Harris (eds.), Ethnicity, Markets, and Migration in the Andes: At the Crossroads of History and Anthropology. Durham, NC, and London: Duke University Press.
9.
Canessa, Andrew2006 "Todos somos indígenas: towards a new language of national political identity" Bulletin of Latin American Research25 (2): 241-263.
10.
Carter, W.E. and Xavier Albó1988 " La comunidad aymara: un mini-estado en conflicto," in Xavier Albó (ed.), Raíces de América: El mundo aymara. Madrid.
11.
Cieza de León, Pedro2001Descubrimiento y conquista del Perú. Madrid : Dastín Historia.
12.
CONAMAQ (Consejo Nacional de Markas y Ayllus de Qollasuyu)2007 "CONAMAQ y el proceso de reconsitución del Qullasuyu " http://www.conamaq.org.bo/sitio.shtml?apc=&s=e .
13.
CSUTCB (Confederación Sindical Única de Trabajadores Campesinos de Bolivia)1994a Estatuto orgánico de la Confederación Sindical Única de Trabajadores Campesinos de Bolivia. Cochabamba.
14.
1994b VII Congreso de CSUTCB: Documentos y resoluciones. Santa Cruz.
15.
FAOI-NP (Federación de Ayllus Ordinarios Indígenas del Norte de Potosí) 1999 Documentos desarrollados en la Federación de Ayllus Oriniarios Indígenas del Norte de Potosí (FAOI-NP). Llallagua.
16.
FSUTCCH (Federación Sindical de Campesinos Originarios de Chuquisaca) 1997 Estatuto orgánico de la Federación Sindical de Campesinos Originarios de Chuquisaca. Sucre.
17.
Garcilaso de la Vega, " El Inca" 2001 Comentarios reales. Madrid: Cátedra.
18.
Godoy, Ricardo1985 "State, ayllu, and ethnicity in northern Potosí, Bolivia " Anthropos80: 53-65.
19.
1989 "Small-scale mining and agriculture among the Jukumani Indians, northern Potosí, Bolivia," in B. S. Orlove , M. W. Foley, and T. F. Love (eds.), State Capital and Rural Society: Anthropological Perspectives on Political Economy in Mexico and the Andes. Boulder, San Francisco, and London: Westview Press.
20.
1990Mining and Agriculture in Highland Bolivia: Ecology, History and Commerce among the Jukumanis. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
21.
Hahn, D.R.1996 "The use and abuse of ethnicity." Latin American Perspectives23 (2): 91-106.
22.
Hall, G. and H. A. Patrinos (eds.) 2006Indigenous Peoples, Poverty, and Human Development in Latin America. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
23.
Harris, Olivia1982 "Labor and produce in an ethnic community, northern Potosí ," in David Lehmann (ed.), Ecology and Exchange in the Andes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
24.
1995 "Ethnic identity and market relations: Indians and mestizos in the Andes," in B. Larson and O. Harris (eds.), Ethnicity, Markets, and Migration in the Andes: At the Crossroads of History and Anthropology. Durham, NC, and London: Duke University Press.
25.
2000a To Make the Earth Bear Fruit: Ethnographic Essays on Fertility, Work, and Gender in Highland Bolivia. London: ILAS.
26.
2000b "Kinship and the vertical economy," in To Make the Earth Bear Fruit: Ethnographic Essays on Fertility, Work, and Gender in Highland Bolivia . London: ILAS.
27.
2000c "Condor and bull: the ambiguity of masculinity," in To Make the Earth Bear Fruit: Ethnographic Essays on Fertility, Work, and Gender in Highland Bolivia. London: ILAS.
28.
Harris, Olivia and Xavier Albó1984Monteras y guardatojos: Campesinos y mineros en el Norte de Potosí. La Paz: CIPCA
29.
Hernáiz, Irene and D. Pacheco2000La Ley INRA en el espejo de la historia: Dos siglos de reformas agrarias. La Paz: Fundación Tierra.
30.
ILO (International Labor Organization)1989C169 Convention concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries . Geneva.
31.
INE (Instituto Nacional de Estadística)1997 " Análisis sociodemográfico: poblaciones nativas." La Paz . http://www.ine.gov.bol.2002Censonacionaldepoblaciónyvivienda2001.LaPaz.
32.
Jiménez, W., F. Landa, and E.Yañez2006 " Bolivia," in Gilette Hall and H. A. Patrinos (eds.), Indigenous Peoples, Poverty, and Human Development in Latin America. Basingstoke : Palgrave Macmillan.
33.
Klein, Herbert1993Haciendas and Ayllus: Rural Society in the Bolivian Andes in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
34.
Klemola, Antero1997 "The reproduction of community through communal practices in Kila Kila, Bolivia." Ph.D. diss., University of Liverpool .
35.
Korovkin, Tania2006 "Indigenous movements in the Central Andes" Latin American and Caribbean Ethnic Studies1 (2): 143-163.
36.
Laclau, Ernesto1985 "New social movements and the plurality of the social ," in D. Slater (ed.), New Social Movements and the State in Latin America. Amsterdam : CEDLA.
37.
Lagos, Maria L.1994Autonomy and Power: The Dynamics of Class and Culture in Rural Bolivia. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
38.
Langer, Erik D.2003Contemporary Indigenous Movements in Latin America . Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources .
39.
Larson, Brooke1995 "Andean communities, political cultures, and markets: the changing contours of a field," in B. Larson and O. Harris (eds.), Ethnicity, Markets, and Migration in the Andes: At the Crossroads of History and Anthropology. Durham, NC, and London: Duke University Press. 1998 Cochabamba, 1550-1900: Colonialism and Agrarian Transformation in Bolivia. Durham, NC, and London: Duke University Press.
40.
Larson, Brooke and Olivia Harris (eds.) 1995Ethnicity, Markets, and Migration in the Andes: At the Crossroads of History and Anthropology. Durham, NC, and London: Duke University Press.
41.
Lehmann, David (ed.) 1982Ecology and Exchange in the Andes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
42.
Lucero, J.A.2006 "Representing `Real Indians': the challenges of indigenous authenticity and strategic constructivism in Ecuador and Bolivia ." Latin American Research Review41 (2): 31-56.
43.
Malloy, James M.1970Bolivia: The Uncompleted Revolution. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.
44.
1977 a "Authoritarianism and corporatism in Latin America: the modal pattern," in J. M. Malloy (ed.), Authoritarianism and Corporatism in Latin America. Pittsburgh : University of Pittsburgh Press.
45.
1977 b "Authoritarianism and corporatism: the case of Bolivia," in J. M. Malloy (ed.), Authoritarianism and Corporatism in Latin America. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.
46.
Malloy, James M. and Eduardo Gamarra1995 "The patrimonial dynamics of party politics in Bolivia," in S. Mainwaring and T. Scully (eds.), Building Democratic Institutions. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
47.
Mendoza, F., W. Flores, and C. Letourneux1994Atlas de los ayllus de Chayanta: Territorios del suni. Potosí.
48.
Molinié-Fioravanti, Antoinette1986 "The Andean community today ," in J. Murra, N. Wachtel, and J. Revel (eds.), Anthropological History of Andean Polities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
49.
Morée, Dicky de2002Cooperación campesina en los Andes: Un estudio sobre las estratégias de organización para el desarrollo rural en Bolivia. Utrecht: University of Utrecht/ Netherlands Geographical Studies .
50.
Murra, John1975Formaciones económicas y políticas del mundo andino. Lima : Instituto de Estudios Peruanos.
51.
1980The Economic Organization of the Inca State. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
52.
1985 "`El archipiélago vertical' revisited," in S. Masuda, I. Shimada, and C. Morris (eds.), Andean Ecology and Civilisation: An Interdisciplinary Perspective on Andean Ecological Complementarity . Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press .
53.
1986 "The expansion of the Inka State: armies, war, and rebellions ," in J. Murra, N. Wachtel, and J. Revel (eds.), Anthropological History of Andean Polities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
54.
1995 "Did tribute and markets prevail in the Andes before the European invasion?" in B. Larson and O. Harris (eds.), Ethnicity, Markets, and Migration in the Andes: At the Crossroads of History and Anthropology. Durham, NC, and London: Duke University Press.
55.
Nickson, Andrew1995Local Government in Latin America. Boulder and London: Lynne Rienner .
56.
Pacheco, Diego1996Poblamiento étnico, provincia Chayanta (Siglos XIX y XX). Sucre: IPTK-CIPRES.
57.
Pape, I.S.R.2005 "Decentralisation and power structures: the role of local power structures in decentralised development and institution building in Bolivia." Ph.D. diss, University of London. 2008 "This is not a meeting for women: the sociocultural dynamics of rural women's political participation in the Bolivian Andes." .Latin American Perspectives35 (6): 41-63.
58.
Platt, Tristan1982Estado boliviano y ayllu andino: Tierra y tributo en el norte de Potosí. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos.
59.
1986 "Mirrors and maize: the concept of Yanantin among the Macha of Bolivia," in J. Murra, N. Wachtel, and J. Revel (eds.), Anthropological History of Andean Polities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
60.
Postero, Nancy2007 "Andean utopias in Evo Morales' Bolivia" Latin American and Caribbean Ethnic Studies2 (1): 1-28.
61.
Postero, Nancy and Leon Zamosc2004 "Indigenous movements and the Indian Question in Latin America," in N. G. Postero and L. Zamosc (eds.), The Struggle for Indigenous Rights in Latin America. Brighton and Portland: Sussex Academic Press.
62.
Rasnake, Roger1988Domination and Cultural Resistance. Authority and power among an Andean People. Durham, NC, and London: Duke University Press.
63.
Rivera, Silvia1987Oppressed But Not Defeated: Struggles among the Aymara and Queshwa 1900-1980. Geneva: UNRISD.
64.
1990 "Liberal democracy and ayllu democracy in Bolivia: the case of Northern Potosí" Journal of Development Studies26: 97-121.
65.
Saignes, Thierry1995 "Indian migration and social change in seventeenth-century Charcas," in B. Larson and O. Harris (eds.), Ethnicity, Markets, and Migration in the Andes: At the Crossroads of History and Anthropology. Durham, NC, and London: Duke University Press.
66.
Serna, Mercedes (ed.) 2002Crónicas de Indias. Madrid: Cátedra.
67.
Stavenhagen, Rodolfo1996 "Indigenous rights: some conceptual problems," in E. Jelin and E. Herschberg (eds.), Constructing Democracy: Human Rights, Citizenship, and Society in Latin America. Boulder and Oxford: Westview Press.
68.
Sternfeld, Gabriela2004 "Asambleas, negociaciones y autoridades locales en las tradiciones orales del Manuscrito de Huarochirí." Revista Andina39: 75-101.
69.
Ströbele-Gregor, Juliana1994 "From Indio to Mestizo . . . to Indio: new Indianist movements in Bolivia" Latin American Perspectives21 (2): 106-123.
70.
1996 "Culture and political practice of the Aymara and Quechua in Bolivia" Latin American Perspectives23 (2): 71-90.
71.
Urton, Gary1992 " Communalism and differentiation in an Andean community ," in R. Dover et al. (eds.), Andean Cosmologies through Time. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
72.
Vacacela, Rosa María2005Estudio de las capacidades institucionales de CONAMAQ. (Consultancy report for DANIDA.)La Paz.
73.
Van Cott, Donna L.1994Indigenous Peoples and Democracy in Latin America. London : Macmillan.
74.
2000The Friendly Liquidation of the Past: The Politics of Diversity in Latin America. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.
75.
2002 "Constitutional reform in the Andes: redefining indigenous-state relations," in R. Sieder (ed.), Multiculturalism in Latin America: Indigenous Rights, Diversity, and Democracy . Basingstoke, UK, and New York : Palgrave Macmillan.
76.
2005From Movements to Parties in Latin America: The Evolution of Ethnic Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press.
77.
Van den Berghe, Pierre1979 "Ethnicity and class in highland Peru," in D. Browman and R. Schwartz (eds.), The Struggle for Identity in South America. The Hague: Mouton.
78.
Webber, Jeffrey R.2007 "Indigenous struggle in Latin America: the perilous invisibility of capital and class" Latin American Politics and Society49 (3): 191-205.
79.
Wightman, Ann M.1990Indigenous Migration and Social Change: The forasteros of Cuzco 1570-1720. Durham, NC, and London: Duke University Press.
80.
Wolf, Eric1957 "Closed corporate community in Mesoamerica and Java ." Southwestern Journal of Anthropology13: 1-18.
81.
Yambert, Karl1980 "Thought and reality: dialectics of the Andean community ," in B. Orlove and G. Custred (eds.), Land and Power in Latin America. London: Holmes and Meier .
82.
Zamosc, Leon2004 "The Indian movement in Ecuador: from politics of influence to politics of power," in N. G. Postero and L. Zamosc (eds.), The Struggle for Indigenous Rights in Latin America. Brighton and Portland: Sussex Academic Press.
