Suggestibility and Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: I'll Tell You Anything You Want to Hear

Abstract

This article reviews the role of suggestibility as a psychological vulnerability in people with FASD who are arrested and questioned by police. After a review of relevant literature on suggestibility and FASD, preliminary data are presented from a small pilot study on suggestibility involving defendants with FASD in the United States who were involved in either a pre-trial or post-conviction adjudication process. Results of that study suggest that persons with FASD may be highly suggestible in interrogative situations, which appears to stem from a combination of neurologically based tendencies to acquiesce to leading questions and change responses to questions as a function of negative feedback. Interrogative suggestibility found in the FASD population, which is likely due to central nervous system dysfunction, has broad forensic implications.

Keywords

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)suggestibility false confession Miranda rights confabulation

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Abkarian

G. G.

(1992). Communication effects of prenatal alcohol exposure. Journal of Communication Disorders, 25, 221–240.

Adnams

C. M.

Kodituwakku

P. W.

Hay

Molteno

C. D.

Viljoen

, & May

P. A.

(2001). Patterns of cognitive-motor development in children with fetal alcohol syndrome from a community in South Africa. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 25, 557–562.

Baddeley

Eysenck

M. E.

, & Anderson

M. C.

(2009). Memory. New York: Psychology Press.

Baumbach

(2002). Some implications of prenatal alcohol exposure for the treatment of adolescents with sexual offending behaviors. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 14(4), 313–327.

Becker

Warr-Leeper

G. A.

, & Leeper

H. A.

Jr. (1990). Fetal alcohol syndrome: A description of oral motor, articulatory, short-term memory, grammatical, and semantic abilities. Journal of Communication Disorders, 23, 97–124.

Bertrand

Floyd

R. L.

Weber

M. K.

O'Connor

M. J.

Riley

E. P.

Johnson

K. A.

(2004). Fetal alcohol syndrome: Guidelines for referral and diagnosis. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Burden

M. J.

Jacobson

S. W.

Sokol

R. J.

, & Jacobson

J. L.

(2005). Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on attention and working memory at 7.5 years of age. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 29(3), 443–452.

Carmichael-Olson

Feldman

J. J.

Streissguth

A. P.

Sampson

P. D.

, & Bookstein

F. L.

(1998). Neuropsychological deficits in adolescents with fetal alcohol syndrome: Clinical findings. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 22, 1998–2012.

Carmichael-Olson

Morse

B. A.

, & Huffine

(1998). Development and psychopathology: Fetal alcohol syndrome and related conditions. Seminars in Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 3, 262–284.

10.

Carmichael-Olson

Streissguth

A. P.

Sampson

P. D.

Barr

H. M.

Bookstein

F. L.

, & Thiede

(1997). Association of prenatal alcohol exposure with behavioral and learning problems in early adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1187–1194.

11.

Clare

I. C. H.

, & Gudjonsson

G. H.

(1993). Interrogative suggestibility, confabulation, and acquiescence in people with mild learning difficulties (mental handicap): Implications for reliability in people with mild learning difficulties. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 32, 295–301.

12.

Clark

Lutke

Minnes

, & Ouellette-Kuntz

(2004). Secondary disabilities among adults with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder in British Columbia. Journal of FAS International, 2, e13.

13.

Cloud

Shepard

G. B.

Barkoff

A. N.

, & Shur

J. V.

(2002). Words without meaning: The Constitution, confessions, and mentally retarded suspects. University of Chicago Law Review, 69, 495–624.

14.

Coles

C. D.

, & Platzman

K. A.

(1993). Behavioral development in children prenatally exposed to drugs and alcohol. International Journal of the Addictions, 28, 1393–1433.

15.

Coles

C. D.

Platzman

K. A.

Lynch

M. E.

, & Freides

(2002). Auditory and visual sustained attention in adolescents prenatally exposed to alcohol. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 26(2), 263–271.

16.

Coles

C. D.

Platzman

K. A.

Raskind-Hood

C. L.

Brown

R. T.

Falek

, & Smith

I. E.

(1997). A comparison of children affected by prenatal alcohol exposure and attention deficit, hyperactivity disorder. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 21, 150–161.

17.

Connor

P. D.

Sampson

P. D.

Bookstein

F. L.

Barr

H. M.

, & Streissguth

A. P.

(2000). Direct and indirect effects of prenatal alcohol damage on executive function. Developmental Neuropsychology, 18(3), 331–354.

18.

Connor

P. D.

Streissguth

A. P.

Sampson

P. D.

Bookstein

F. L.

, & Barr

H. M.

(1999). Individual differences in auditory and visual attention among fetal alcohol-affected adults. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 23(8), 1395–1402.

19.

Conry

(1997). Effects of parental substance abuse on children's development. In Harrison

& Carver

(Eds.), Alcohol and drug problems: A practical guide for counsellors, (2nd ed.). Toronto, ON: Addiction Research Foundation.

20.

Conry

J. L.

, & Fast

D. K.

(2000). Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and the criminal justice system. Vancouver, BC: The Law Foundation of British Columbia.

21.

Conry

J. L.

, & Lane

(2009). Characteristics of youth on adjudicated probation orders with FASD. Maple Ridge, B.C.: British Columbia Ministry of Children and Family Development.

22.

Dagher-Margosian

(1997). Representing the FAS client in a criminal case. In Streissguth

A. P.

& Kanter

(Eds.), The challenge of fetal alcohol syndrome: Overcoming secondary disabilities. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

23.

Darby

B. L.

Streissguth

A. P.

, & Smith

D. W.

(1981). A preliminary follow-up of 8 children diagnosed with fetal alcohol syndrome in infancy. Neurobehavioral Toxicology and Teratology, 3, 157–159.

24.

Everington

, & Fulero

(1999). Competence to confess: Measuring understanding and suggestibility of defendants with mental retardation. Mental Retardation, 37, 212–220.

25.

Fast

D. K.

, & Conry

J. L.

(2004). The challenge of fetal alcohol syndrome in the criminal legal system. Addiction Biology, 9, 161–166.

26.

Fast

D. K.

Conry

J. L.

, & Loock

C. A.

(1999). Identifying fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) among youth in the criminal justice system. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 20, 370–372.

27.

Fraser

(2008). Victims and fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD): A review of the issues. Victims of Crime Research Digest, 1, 24–28.

28.

Gibbard

W. B.

Wass

, & Clarke

M. E.

(2003). The neuropsychological implications of prenatal alcohol exposure. Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 12, 72–76.

29.

Goldschmidt

Richardson

G. A.

Stoffer

D. S.

Geva

, & Day

N. L.

(1996). Prenatal alcohol exposure and academic achievement at age six: A nonlinear fit. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 20, 763–770.

30.

Green

C. R.

Mihic

A. M.

Nikkel

S. M.

Stade

B. C.

Rasmussen

Munoz

D. P.

, & Reynolds

J. N.

(2009). Executive function deficits in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) measured using the Cambridge Neuropsychological Tests Automated Battery (CANTAB). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 688–697.

31.

Greenbaum

Nulman

Rovet

, & Koren

(2002). The Toronto experience in diagnosing alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder: A unique profile of deficits and assets. The Canadian Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 9(4), 215–225.

32.

Grisso

(2003). Evaluating competencies: Forensic assessments and instruments (2nd ed.). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.

33.

Gruppuso

(2009, March). Interrogative suggestibility in children with FASD: Preliminary findings. Poster presented at the 3rd International Conference on Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder, Victoria, BC, Canada.

34.

Gudjonsson

G. H.

(1997). The Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scales manual. Hove, UK: Psychology Press.

35.

Gudjonsson

G. H.

(2003). The psychology of interrogations and confessions. A handbook. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.

36.

Gudjonsson

G. H.

(2010). Psychological vulnerabilities during police interviews. Why are they important? Legal and Criminological Psychology, 15, 161–175.

37.

Gudjonsson

G. H.

, & Clare

I. C. H.

(1995). The relationship between confabulation and intellectual ability, memory, interrogative suggestibility and acquiescence. Personality and Individual Differences, 19, 333–338.

38.

Gudjonsson

G. H.

, & Clark

N. K.

(1986). Suggestibility in police interrogation: A social psychological model. Social Behaviour, 1, 83–104.

39.

Gudjonsson

G. H.

, & Henry

(2003). Child and adult witnesses with intellectual disability: The importance of suggestibility. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 8, 241–252.

40.

Gudjonsson

G. H.

Murphy

G. H.

, & Clare

I. C. H.

(2000). Assessing the capacity of people with intellectual disabilities to be witnesses in court. Psychological Medicine, 30, 307–314.

41.

Gudjonsson

G. H.

, & Sigurdsson

J. F.

(2007). Motivation for offending and personality. A study among young offenders on probation. Personality and Individual Difference, 42, 1243–1253.

42.

Gudjonsson

G. H.

, & Sigurdsson

J. F.

(2010). The relationship of compliance with inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity. Personality and Individual Differences, 49, 651–654.

43.

Gudjonsson

G. H.

Sigurdsson

J. F.

Einarsson

Bragason

O. O.

, & Newton

A. K.

(2008). Interrogative suggestibility, compliance and false confessions among prisoners and their relationship with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms. Psychological Medicine, 38, 1037–1044.

44.

Gudjonsson

G. H.

Wells

, & Young

(2011). Motivation for offending among prisoners and the relationship with Axis I and Axis II disorders and ADHD symptoms. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 64–68.

45.

Gudjonsson

G. H.

, & Young

(2010). Does confabulation in memory predict suggestibility beyond IQ and memory? Personality and Individual Differences, 49, 65–67.

46.

Gudjonsson

G. H.

Young

, & Bramham

(2007). Interrogative suggestibility in adults diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). A potential vulnerability during police questioning. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 737–745.

47.

Hamilton

D. A.

Kodituwakku

Sutherland

R. J.

, & Savage

D. D.

(2003). Children with fetal alcohol syndrome are impaired at place learning but not cued-navigation in a virtual Morris water task. Behavioural Brain Research, 143(1), 85–94.

48.

Inbau

F. E.

Reid

J. E.

Buckley

J. P.

, & Jayne

B. P.

(2001). Criminal interrogations and confessions. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen.

49.

Jacobson

S. W.

(1998). Specificity of neurobehavioral outcomes associated with prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 22, 313–320.

50.

Jacobson

S. W.

Jacobson

J. L.

, & Sokol

R. J.

(1994). Effects of fetal alcohol exposure on infant reaction time. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 18, 1125–1132.

51.

Jacobson

J. L.

Jacobson

S. W.

Sokol

R. J.

Martier

S. S.

Ager

J. W.

, & Kaplan-Estrin

M. G.

(1993). Teratogenic effects of alcohol on infant development. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 17, 174–183.

52.

Jirikowic

Olson

H. C.

, & Kartin

(2008). Sensory processing, school performance, and adaptive behavior of young school-age children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Physical and Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics, 28(2), 117–136.

53.

Kaemingk

K. L.

, & Halverson

P. T.

(2000). Spatial memory following prenatal alcohol exposure: More than a material specific memory deficit. Child Neuropsychology, 6, 115–128.

54.

Kaemingk

, & Paquette

(1999). Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on neuropsychological functioning. Developmental Neuropsychology, 15, 111–140.

55.

Kassin

S. M.

(2008). False confessions: Causes, consequences, and implications for reform. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17(4), 249–253.

56.

Kassin

S. M.

, & McNall

(1991). Police interrogations and confessions: Communicating promises and threats by pragmatic implication. Law and Human Behavior, 15, 233–251.

57.

Kelly

S. J.

Day

, & Streissguth

A. P.

(2000). Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on social behavior in humans and other species. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 22(2), 143–149.

58.

Kerns

K. A.

Don

Mateer

C. A.

, & Streissguth

A. P.

(1997). Cognitive deficits in non-retarded adults with fetal alcohol syndrome. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30, 685–693.

59.

Kodituwakku

P. W.

(2009). Neurocognitive profile in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 15(3), 218–224.

60.

Kodituwakku

Coriale

Fiorentino

Aragón

A. S.

Kalberg

W. O.

Buckley

(2006). Neurobehavioral characteristics of children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in communities from Italy: Preliminary results. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 30(9), 1551–1561.

61.

Kodituwakku

P. W.

Handmaker

N. S.

Cutler

S. K.

Weathersby

E. K.

, & Handmaker

S. D.

(1995). Specific impairments in self-regulation in children exposed to alcohol prenatally. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 19(6), 1558–1564.

62.

Kopera-Frye

Dehaene

, & Streissguth

A. P.

(1996). Impairments of number processing induced by prenatal alcohol exposure. Neuropsychologia, 34, 1187–1196.

63.

Lee

K. T.

Mattson

S. N.

, & Riley

E. P.

(2004). Classifying children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure using measures of attention. Journal of the International Neuropsychology Society, 10, 271–277.

64.

Lezak

M. D.

(1995). Neuropsychological assessment (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.

65.

Lezak

M. D.

Howieson

D. B.

Loring

D. W.

Hannay

H. J.

, & Fischer

J. S.

(2004). Neuropsychological assessment (4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.

66.

Manji

Pei

Loomes

, & Rasmussen

(2009). A review of the verbal and visual memory impairments in children with foetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Developmental Neurorehabilitation, 12(4), 239–247.

67.

Mattson

S. N.

Calarco

K. E.

, & Lang

A. R.

(2006). Focused and shifting attention in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Neuropsychology, 20(3), 361–369.

68.

Mattson

S. N.

Goodman

A. M.

Caine

Delis

D. C.

, & Riley

E. P.

(1999). Executive functioning in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 23(11), 1808–1815.

69.

Mattson

S. N.

& Riley

E. P.

(1998). A review of the neurobehavioral deficits in children with fetal alcohol syndrome or prenatal exposure to alcohol. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 22(2), 279–294.

70.

Mattson

S. N.

, & Riley

E. P.

(1999). Implicit and explicit memory functioning in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 5, 462–471.

71.

Mattson

S. N.

Riley

E. P.

Gramling

Delis

D. C.

, & Lyons-Jones

(1998). Neuropsychological comparison of alcohol-exposed children with or without physical features of fetal alcohol syndrome. Neuropsychology, 12, 146–153.

72.

Mattson

S. N.

Riley

E. P.

Sowell

E. R.

Jernigan

T. L.

Sobel

D. F.

, & Jones

K. L.

(1996). A decrease in the size of the basal ganglia in children with fetal alcohol syndrome. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 20(6), 1088–1093.

73.

Mattson

S. N.

Schoenfeld

A. M.

, & Riley

E. P.

(1999). Teratogenic effects of alcohol on brain and behaviour. Alcohol Research and Health, 25, 185–191.

74.

McGee

C. L.

Bjorkquist

O. A.

Price

J. M.

Mattson

S. N.

, & Riley

E. P.

(2009). Social information processing in children with histories of heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 817–830.

75.

McGee

C. L.

Fryer

S. L.

Bjorkquist

O. A.

Mattson

S. N.

, & Riley

E. P.

(2008). Deficits in social problem solving in adolescents with prenatal exposure to alcohol. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 34(4), 423–431.

76.

McGee

C. L.

Schonfeld

A. M.

Roebuck-Spencer

T. M.

Riley

E. P.

, & Mattson

S. N.

(2008). Children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure demonstrate deficits on multiple measures of concept formation. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 32, 1388–1397.

77.

Moore

T. E.

, & Green

(2004). Fetal alcohol spectrum Disorder (FASD). A need for closer examination by the criminal justice system. Criminal Reports, 19, 99–108. Retrieved December 28, 2010, from http://www.acbr.com/fas/FASDCrimRep.pdf

78.

Nanson

J. L.

, & Hiscock

(1990). Attention deficits in children exposed to alcohol prenatally. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 14(5), 656–661.

79.

Noland

J. S.

Singer

L. T.

Arendt

R. E.

Minnes

Short

E. J.

, & Bearer

C. F.

(2003). Executive functioning in preschool-age children prenatally exposed to alcohol, cocaine, and marijuana. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 27(4), 647–656.

80.

O'Connell

M. J.

Garmoe

, & Goldstein

N. E. S.

(2005). Miranda comprehension in adults with mental retardation and the effects of feedback style on suggestibility. Law and Human Behavior, 29, 359–369.

81.

O'Connor

M. J.

Frankel

Paley

Schonfeld

A. M.

Carpenter

Laugeson

(2006). A controlled social skills training for children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(4), 639–648.

82.

Ofshe

R. J.

, & Leo

R. A.

(1997). The decision to confess falsely: Rational choice and irrational action. Denver University Law Review, 74, 979–1122.

83.

Pollard

Trowbridge

Slade

P. D.

Streissguth

A. P.

Laktonen

, & Townes

B. D.

(2004). Interrogative suggestibility in a U.S. context: Some preliminary data on normal and FAS/FAE subjects. Personality and Individual Differences, 37, 1101–1108.

84.

Rasmussen

(2005). Executive functioning and working memory in Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 29(8), 1359–1367.

85.

Rasmussen

, & Bisanz

(2009). Executive functioning in children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder: Profiles and age-related differences. Child Neuropsychology, 15(3), 201–215.

86.

Rasmussen

Wyper

, & Talwar

(2009). The relation between theory of mind and executive functions in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Canadian Journal of Pharmacology, 16(2), e370–e380.

87.

Riley

E. P.

, & McGee

C. L.

(2005). Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: An overview with emphasis on changes in brain and behavior. Experimental Biology and Medicine, 230(6), 357–365.

88.

Roebuck

T. M.

Mattson

S. N.

, & Riley

E. P.

(1999). Behavioral and psychosocial profiles of alcohol-exposed children. Alcohol Clinical & Experimental Research, 23, 1070–1076.

89.

Roebuck

T. M.

Mattson

S. N.

, & Riley

E. P.

(2002). Interhemispheric transfer in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 26, 1863–1871.

90.

Rogers

Harrison

K. S.

Hazelwood

L. L.

, & Sewell

K. W.

(2007). Knowing and intelligent: A study of Miranda warnings in mentally disordered defendants. Law and Human Behavior, 31, 401–418.

91.

Rogers

Harrison

K. S.

Rogstad

J. E.

LaFortune

K. A.

, & Hazelwood

L. L.

(2010). The role of suggestibility in determination of Miranda abilities: A study of the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scales. Law and Human Behavior, 34, 66–78.

92.

Rogers

Shuman

D. W.

, & Drogin

E. Y.

(2008). Miranda rights…and wrongs: Myths, methods, and model solutions. Criminal Justice, 23, 5–8.

93.

Schonfeld

A. M.

Mattson

S. N.

Lang

A. R.

Delis

D. C.

, & Riley

E. P.

(2001). Verbal and non-verbal fluency in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 62, 239–246.

94.

Schonfeld

A. M.

Paley

Frankel

, & O'Connor

M. J.

(2006). Executive functioning predicts social skills following prenatal alcohol exposure. Child Neuropsychology, 12(6), 439–452.

95.

Smith

, & Gudjonsson

G. H.

(1995). Confabulation among forensic inpatients and its relationship with memory, suggestibility, compliance, anxiety, and self-esteem. Personality and Individual Differences, 19, 517–523.

96.

Streissguth

A. P.

Aase

J. M.

Clarren

S. K.

Randels

S. P.

LaDue

R. A.

, & Smith

D. F.

(1991). Fetal alcohol syndrome in adolescents and adults. Journal of the American Medical Association, 265, 1961–1967.

97.

Streissguth

Barr

Kogan

, & Bookstein

(1996). Understanding the occurrence of secondary disabilities in clients with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) and fetal alcohol effects (FAE). Final Report: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Grant No. R04/CCR008515.

98.

Streissguth

A. P.

Barr

H. M.

, & Sampson

P. D.

(1990). Moderate prenatal alcohol exposure: Effects on child IQ and learning problems at age 7 ½ years. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 14(5), 662–669.

99.

Streissguth

A. P.

Barr

H. M.

Sampson

P. D.

Parrish-Johnson

J. C.

Kirchner

G. L.

, & Martin

D. C.

(1986). Attention, distraction, and reaction time at age 7 years and prenatal alcohol exposure. Neurobehavioral Toxicology & Teratology, 8, 717–725.

100.

Streissguth

A. P.

Bookstein

F. L.

Barr

H. M.

Press

, & Sampson

P. D.

(1998). A fetal alcohol behavior scale. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 22, 325–333.

101.

Streissguth

A. P.

Bookstein

F. L.

Barr

H. M.

Sampson

P. D.

O'Malley

, & Young

J. K.

(2004). Risk factors for adverse life outcomes in fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effects. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 25(4), 228–238.

102.

Streissguth

A. P.

Bookstein

F. L.

Sampson

P. D.

, & Barr

H. M.

(1989). Neurobehavioral effects of prenatal alcohol: Part III. PLS analyses of neuropsychologic tests. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 11, 493–507.

103.

Streissguth

A. P.

, & Giunta

C. T.

(1988). Mental health and health needs of infants and preschool children with fetal alcohol syndrome. International Journal of Family Psychiatry, 9(1), 29–47.

104.

Streissguth

A. P.

, & O'Malley

(2000). Neuropsychiatric implications and long-term consequences of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Seminars on Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 5, 177–190.

105.

Thomas

S. E.

Kelly

S. J.

Mattson

S. N.

, & Riley

E. P.

(1998). Comparison of social abilities of children with fetal alcohol syndrome to those of children with similar IQ scores and normal controls. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 22, 528–533.

106.

Vaurio

Riley

E. P.

, & Mattson

S. N.

(2008). Differences in executive functioning in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 14(1), 119–129.

107.

Weinberg

, & Guerri

(1996). New directions in fetal alcohol syndrome research. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 20 (Suppl.), 72–77.

108.

Whaley

S. E.

, & O'Connor

M. J.

(2003). Increasing the report of alcohol use among low-income pregnant women. American Journal of Health Promotion, 17, 369–372.

109.

Willford

J. A.

Richardson

G. A.

Leech

S. L.

, & Day

N. L.

(2004). Verbal and visuospatial learning and memory function in children with moderate prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 28, 497–507.