Associations Between Work–Family Conflict,Psychological Distress,and Well-Being Among Taiwanese Clergy

Abstract

The study examined the associations between work–family conflict (WFC), psychological distress, and well-being in a sample of 336 clergy (mean age = 46.1 years, SD = 11.7 years) in Taiwan. Specifically, we examined how each of the four types of WFC (time-based work interference with family, time-based family interference with work, strain-based work interference with family, and strain-based family interference with work) were related to psychological distress (depression, anxiety, and burnout) and well-being (life satisfaction, flourishing, and spiritual well-being). Results from the bivariate analysis indicated that all four types of WFC were positively associated with psychological distress and negatively associated with well-being. However, when they were modeled simultaneously in the structural equation model, only strain-based WFC, but not time-based WFC, were related to the outcomes. Finally, younger, female, or single clergy, as well as clergy who work alone or who earn below the median income reported higher levels of psychological distress and lower levels of well-being compared with their counterparts. Practical implications of protecting and promoting clergy mental health were discussed in the article.

Keywords

work–family conflict depression anxiety burnout life satisfaction flourishing spiritual well-being Taiwanese clergy

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Allen

T. D.

French

K. A.

Dumani

Shockley

K. M.

(2020). A cross-national meta-analytic examination of predictors and outcomes associated with work–family conflict. Journal of Applied Psychology, 105(6), 539–576. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000442

Allen

T. D.

Herst

D. E. L.

Bruck

C. S.

Sutton

(2000). Consequences associated with work-to-family conflict: A review and agenda for future research. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5(2), 278–308. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.5.2.278

Amstad

F. T.

Meier

L. L.

Fasel

Elfering

Semmer

N. K.

(2011). A meta-analysis of work–family conflict and various outcomes with a special emphasis on cross-domain versus matching-domain relations. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 16(2), 151–169. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022170

(2017). Low mental health treatment participation and Confucianist familial norms among East Asian immigrants: A critical review. International Journal of Mental Health, 46(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207411.2016.1264036

Badawy

Schieman

(2020). Control and the health effects of work–family conflict: A longitudinal test of generalized versus specific stress buffering. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 61(3), 324–341. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146520942897

Beck

A. T.

Epstein

Brown

Steer

R. A.

(1988). An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56(6), 893–897. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.56.6.893

Brotheridge

C. M.

Lee

R. T.

(2005). Impact of work-family interference on general well-being: A replication and extension. International Journal of Stress Management, 12(3), 203–221. https://doi.org/10.1037/1072-5245.12.3.203

Butler

E. A.

Lee

T. L.

Gross

J. J.

(2007). Emotion regulation and culture: Are the social consequences of emotion suppression culture-specific? Emotion, 7(1), 30–48.

Cañadas-De la Fuente

G. A.

Ortega

Ramirez-Baena

De la Fuente-Solana

E. I.

Vargas

Gómez-Urquiza

J. L.

(2018). Gender, marital status, and children as risk factors for burnout in nurses: A meta-analytic study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(10), Article 2102. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15102102

10.

Carlson

Kacmar

Williams

(2000). Construction and initial validation of a multidimensional measure of work–family conflict. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 56(2), 249–276. https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.1999.1713

11.

Chang

H.-Y.

Shyu

Y.-L.

Wong

M.-K.

Chu

T.-L.

Y.-Y.

Teng

C.-I.

(2017). How does burnout impact the three components of nursing professional commitment? Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 31(4), 1003–1011. https://doi.org/10.1111/scs.12425

12.

Chang

Y.-Y.

(2011). Sex differences in the relationships among work and family demands, resources, and work–family conflict. International Journal of Commerce and Strategy, 3(1), 25–38.

13.

Che

H.-H.

M.-L.

Chen

H.-C.

Chang

S.-W.

Lee

Y.-J.

(2006). Validation of the Chinese version of the Beck Anxiety Inventory. Formosa Journal of Medicine, 10(4), 447–454.

14.

Cheng

C.-Y.

Walker

L. O.

Chu

T.-P.

(2013). Physical conditions and depressive symptoms of Chinese postpartum mothers in the United States and Taiwan. Health Care for Women International, 34(7), 539–555. https://doi.org/10.1080/07399332.2012.655389

15.

Cheung

Rensvold

(2001). The effects of model parsimony and sampling error on the fit of structural equation models. Organizational Research Methods, 4(3), 236–264. https://doi.org/10.1177/109442810143004

16.

Cole

Rabin

Smith

Kaufman

(2004). Development and validation of a Rasch-derived CES-D short form. Psychological Assessment, 16(4), 360–372. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.16.4.360

17.

Diener

E. D.

Emmons

R. A.

Larsen

R. J.

Griffin

(1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13

18.

Diener

E. D.

Wirtz

Tov

Kim-Prieto

Choi

D. W.

Oishi

Biswas-Diener

(2010). New well-being measures: Short scales to assess flourishing and positive and negative feelings. Social Indicators Research, 97, 143–156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-009-9493-y

19.

Eagle

B. W.

Icenogle

M. L.

Maes

J. D.

Miles

E. W.

(1998). The importance of employee demographic profiles for understanding experiences of work–family interrole conflicts. The Journal of Social Psychology, 138(6), 690–709. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224549809603255

20.

Edwards

Bretherton

Gresswell

Sabin-Farrell

(2020). The relationship between social support, spiritual well-being, and depression in Christian clergy: A systematic literature review. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 23(10), 857–873. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2020.1838459

21.

Greenhaus

J. J.

Beutell

N. J.

(1985). Sources of conflict between work and family roles. Academy of Management Review, 10(1), 76–88. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1985.4277352

22.

Gutek

B. A.

Searle

Klepa

(1991). Rational versus gender role explanations for work–family conflict. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76(4), 560–568. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.76.4.560

23.

Hayes

A. M.

Feldman

(2004). Clarifying the construct of mindfulness in the context of emotion regulation and the process of change in therapy. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11(3), 255–262. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.bph080

24.

Hileman

(2008). The unique needs of protestant clergy families: Implications for marriage and family counseling. Journal of Spirituality in Mental Health, 10(2), 119–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/19349630802081152

25.

Houlfort

Philippe

F. L.

Bourdeau

Leduc

(2018). A comprehensive understanding of the relationships between passion for work and work–family conflict and the consequences for psychological distress. International Journal of Stress Management, 25(4), 313–329. https://doi.org/10.1037/str0000068

26.

L. T.

Bentler

P. M.

(1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55.

27.

Hybels

C. F.

Blazer

D. G.

Proeschold-Bell

R. J.

(2018). Persistent depressive symptoms in a population with high levels of occupational stress: Trajectories offer insights into both chronicity and resilience. Journal of Psychiatry Practice, 24(6), 399–409. https://doi.org/10.1097/PRA.0000000000000337

28.

Innstrand

S. T.

Langballe

E. M.

Espnes

G. A.

Falkum

Aasland

O. G.

(2008). Positive and negative work–family interaction and burnout: A longitudinal study of reciprocal relations. Work Stress, 22(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678370801975842

29.

Innstrand

S. T.

Langballe

E. M.

Falkum

(2010). Exploring occupational differences in work–family interaction: Who is at risk? International Journal of Stress Management, 17(1), 38–55. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018565

30.

Jawahar

I. M.

Kisamore

J. L.

Stone

T. H.

Rahn

D. L.

(2012). Differential effect of interrole conflict on proactive individual’s experience of burnout. Journal of Business and Psychology, 27, 243–254. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-011-9234-5

31.

Keyes

C. L. M.

Yao

Hybels

C. F.

Milstein

Proeschold-Bell

R. J.

(2020). Are changes in positive mental health associated with increased likelihood of depression over a two-year period? A test of the mental health promotion and protection hypotheses. Journal of Affective Disorders, 270, 136–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.03.056

32.

Kinnunen

Feldt

Geurts

Pulkkinen

(2006). Types of work–family interface: Well-being correlates of negative and positive spillover between work and family. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 47(2), 149–162. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.2006.00502.x

33.

Kline

R. B.

(2015). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. Guilford.

34.

Lin

Fan

(2015). Family boundary characteristics, work–family conflict, and life satisfaction: A moderated mediation model. International Journal of Psychology, 50(5), 336–344. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12107

35.

Kao

S.-F.

Cooper

C. L.

Allen

T. D.

Lapierre

L. M.

O’Driscoll

Poelmans

S. A. Y.

Sanchez

J. I.

Spector

P. E.

(2009). Work resources, work-to-family conflict, and its consequences: A Taiwanese–British cross-cultural comparison. International Journal of Stress Management, 16(1), 25–44. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013988

36.

Mache

Bernburg

Groneberg

D. A.

Klapp

B. F.

Danzer

(2016). Work family conflict in its relations to perceived working situation and work engagement. Work, 53(4), 859–869.

37.

Major

V. S.

Klein

K. J.

Ehrhart

M. G.

(2002). Work time, work interference with family, and psychological distress. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(3), 427–436. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.3.427

38.

Markus

H. R.

Kitayama

(1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98(2), 224–253. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.98.2.224

39.

Maslach

Jackson

S. E.

(1981). The measurement of experienced burnout. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2(2), 99–113. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030020205

40.

Matsumoto

(1992). American–Japanese cultural differences in the recognition of universal facial expressions. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 23(1), 72–84. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022192231005

41.

Mauno

Ruokolainen

Kinnunen

(2013). Does aging make employees more resilient to job stress? Age as a moderator in the job stressor–well-being relationship in three Finnish occupational samples. Aging Mental Health, 17(4), 411–422. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2012.747077

42.

Milstein

Hybels

C. F.

Proeschold-Bell

R. J.

(2020). A prospective study of clergy spiritual well-being, depressive symptoms, and occupational distress. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 12(4), 409–416. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000252

43.

Muthén

L. K.

Muthén

(1998–2017). Mplus user’s guide (8th ed.).

44.

Ngo

H. Y.

Foley

Loi

(2005). Work role stressors and turnover intentions: A study of professional clergy in Hong Kong. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 16(11), 2133–2146. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585190500315141

45.

Nohe

Meier

L. L.

Sonntag

Michel

(2015). The chicken or the egg? A meta-analysis of panel studies of the relationship between work–family conflict and strain. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100(2), 522–536. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0038012

46.

Pan

(2006). Pastoral counselling of Korean clergy with burnout: Culture and narcissism. Asia Journal of Theology, 20(2), 241–255.

47.

Payton

A. R.

(2009). Mental health, mental illness, and psychological distress: Same continuum or distinct phenomena. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 50(3), 213–227. https://doi.org/10.1177/002214650905000309

48.

Pien

L. C.

Chen

I. S.

Cheng

W. J.

Cheng

(2020). Work-to-family conflict and its associations with workers’ burnout, poor self-rated health, and minor mental disorder: A survey of general employees in Taiwan. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 62(8), 588–594. https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0000000000001894

49.

Proeschold-Bell

R. J.

Miles

Toth

(2013). Using effort-reward imbalance theory to understand high rates of depression and anxiety among clergy. Journal of Primary Prevention, 34, 439–453. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-013-0321-4

50.

Proeschold-Bell

R. J.

Eisenberg

Adams

Smith

Legrand

Wilk

(2016). The glory of God is a human being fully alive: Predictors of positive versus negative mental health among clergy. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 54(4), 702–721. https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12234

51.

Proeschold-Bell

R. J.

Yang

Toth

Rivers

Carder

(2014). Closeness to God among those doing God’s work: A spiritual well-being measure for clergy. Journal of Religion and Health, 53, 878–894. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-013-9682-5

52.

Randall

K. J.

(2007). Examining the relationship between burnout and age among Anglican clergy in England and Wales. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 10(1), 39–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674670601012303

53.

Rosales

Fung

Lee

(2020). Clergy well-being: The role of lived values and values fit. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 49(1), 53–66. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091647120916010

54.

Rowatt

(2001). Stress and satisfaction in ministry families. Review & Expositor, 98(4), 523–543. https://doi.org/10.1177/003463730109800404

55.

Sachs

(2003). Validation of the satisfaction with life scale in a sample of Hong Kong University students. Psychologia, 46(4), 225–234. https://doi.org/10.2117/psysoc.2003.225

56.

Scott

Lovell

(2015). The rural pastors initiative: Addressing isolation and burnout in rural ministry. Pastoral Psychology, 64, 71–97. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11089-013-0591-z

57.

Wells

C. R.

Probst

McKeown

Mitchem

Whiejong

(2012). The relationship between work-related stress and boundary-related stress within the clerical profession. Journal of Religion and Health, 51, 215–230. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-011-9501-9

58.

Westerhof

G. J.

Keyes

C. L. M.

(2010). Mental illness and mental health: The two continua model across the lifespan. Journal of Adult Development, 17, 110–119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-009-9082-y

59.

Zhuang

X. Y.

Wong

Cheng

C. W.

Pan

S. M.

(2017). Mental health literacy, stigma and perception of causation of mental illness among Chinese people in Taiwan. The International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 63(6), 498–507. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764017719303