If not belief in God,then what? Identifying factors that contribute to well-being among Polish nonbelievers

Abstract

Recent estimates by the Pew Research Center show that Poland is one of the fastest secularizing countries in the world. Despite the growing role of such attitudes in Poland and other countries around the world, still little is known about the psychosocial functioning and mental health of nonbelievers. The present study aimed to fill in this knowledge gap by examining various factors that may contribute to nonbelievers’ well-being, including perceived social support, emotion regulation strategies, secular beliefs (humanism and belief in science), and clarity of self-beliefs. Five hundred Polish nonbelievers took part in this study, of whom 38% reported no nominal affiliation with any religious or secular group, 33% affiliated with Roman Catholics, and 22% identified as Atheists. Comparing these groups, we found that while Catholics and Atheists did not differ significantly in terms of their overall well-being, religious “nones” scored lower than Catholics on overall well-being (but not meaning in life or social support). In addition, it was found that—at the level of the whole sample—having greater clarity of self-beliefs, using functional emotion regulation strategies, as well as having greater perceived social support were all positively associated with the presence of meaning in life and well-being.

Keywords

Atheism emotion regulation meaning in life non-belief secular beliefs well-being

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Abbott

D. M.

Franks

A. S.

(2021). Coping with COVID-19: An examination of the role of (non)religiousness/(non)spirituality. Journal of Religion and Health, 60(4), 2395–2410. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-021-01284-9

Abbott

D. M.

Franks

A. S.

Cook

Mercier

(2021). (Non)religious coping with a natural disaster in a rural U.S. community. Secularism and Nonreligion, 10, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.5334/snr.139

Aghababaei

Sohrabi

Eskandari

Borjali

Farrokhi

Chen

Z. J.

(2016). Predicting subjective well-being by religious and scientific attitudes with hope, purpose in life, and death anxiety as mediators. Personality and Individual Differences, 90, 93–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.10.046

Aldao

(2013). The future of emotion regulation research: Capturing context. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(2), 155–172. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612459518

Baker

J. O.

Stroope

Walker

M. H.

(2018). Secularity, religiosity, and health: Physical and mental health differences between atheists, agnostics, and nonaffiliated theists compared to religiously affiliated individuals. Social Science Research, 75, 44–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2018.07.003

Batz

Tay

(2018). Gender differences in subjective well-being. In Diener

Oishi

Tay

(Eds.), Handbook of well-being (pp. 1–15). DEF Publishers.

Bożewicz

Boguszewski

(2021). The COVID-19 pandemic as a catalyst for religious polarization in Poland. Religions, 12(8), 572. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12080572

Brammli-Greenberg

Glazer

Shapiro

(2018). The inverse U-shaped religion–health connection among Israeli Jews. Journal of Religion and Health, 57(2), 738–750. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-018-0577-3

Brewster

M. E.

Velez

B. L.

Geiger

E. F.

Sawyer

J. S.

(2020). It’s like herding cats: Atheist minority stress, group involvement, and psychological outcomes. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 67(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000392

10.

Büssing

Föller-Mancini

Gidley

Heusser

(2010). Aspects of spirituality in adolescents. International Journal of Children’s Spirituality, 15(1), 25–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/13644360903565524

11.

Buszman

Przybyła-Basista

(2017). Polska adaptacja Wielowymiarowej Skali Spostrzeganego Wsparcia Społecznego [The Polish adaptation of the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support]. Polskie Forum Psychologiczne, 22, 581–599. https://doi.org/10.14656/PFP20170404

12.

Campbell

J. D.

Trapnell

P. D.

Heine

S. J.

Katz

I. M.

Lavallee

L. F.

Lehman

D. R.

(1996). Self-concept clarity: Measurement, personality correlates, and cultural boundaries. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(1), 141–156. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.1.141

13.

Cohen

A. B.

Johnson

K. A.

(2017). The relation between religion and well-being. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 12(3), 533–547. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-016-9475-6

14.

Coleman

T. J.

Hood

R. W.

Streib

(2018). An introduction to atheism, agnosticism, and nonreligious worldviews. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 10(3), 203–206. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000213

15.

Coleman

T. J.

Jong

(2021). Counting the nonreligious: A critical review of new measures. In Ai

A. L.

Wink

Paloutzian

R. F.

Harris

K. A.

(Eds.), Assessing spirituality in a diverse world (pp. 87–116). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52140-0_5

16.

Coleman

T. J.

Sevinç

Hood

R. W.

Jong

(2019). An atheist perspective on self-esteem and meaning making while under death awareness. Secular Studies, 1(2), 204–228.

17.

Coleman

T. J.

Silver

C. F.

Holcombe

(2013). Focusing on horizontal transcendence: Much more than a “non-belief.” Essays in the Philosophy of Humanism, 21(2), 1–18.

18.

Cragun

R. T.

(2015). Who are the “new atheists?” In Beaman

L. G.

Tomlins

(Eds.), Atheist identities—Spaces and social contexts (Vol. 2, pp. 195–211). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-09602-5_12

19.

Diener

(2012). New findings and future directions for subjective well-being research. American Psychologist, 67(8), 590–597. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029541

20.

Diener

Emmons

R. A.

Larsen

R. J.

Griffin

(1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13

21.

Diener

Tay

Myers

D. G.

(2011). The religion paradox: If religion makes people happy, why are so many dropping out? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(6), 1278–1290. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024402

22.

Dilmaghani

(2018). Religiosity and subjective wellbeing in Canada. Journal of Happiness Studies, 19(3), 629–647. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-016-9837-7

23.

Ellison

C. G.

George

L. K.

(1994). Religious involvement, social ties, and social support in a southeastern community. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 33(1), 46–61. https://doi.org/10.2307/1386636

24.

Farias

(2013). The psychology of atheism. In Bullivant

Ruse

(Eds.), The Oxford handbook of atheism (pp. 468–482). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199644650.013.023

25.

Farias

Coleman

T. J.

Bartlett

J. E.

Oviedo

Soares

Santos

Bas

M. D. C.

(2019). Atheists on the Santiago Way: Examining motivations to go on pilgrimage. Sociology of Religion, 80(1), 28–44. https://doi.org/10.1093/socrel/sry019

26.

Farias

Newheiser

A.-K.

Kahane

De Toledo

(2013). Scientific faith: Belief in science increases in the face of stress and existential anxiety. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49(6), 1210–1213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2013.05.008

27.

Galen

L. W.

(2015). Atheism, wellbeing, and the wager: Why not believing in god (with others) is good for you. Science, Religion and Culture, 2(3), 54–69. https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.src/2015/2.3.54.69

28.

Galen

L. W.

(2018). Focusing on the nonreligious reveals secular mechanisms underlying well-being and prosociality. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 10(3), 296–306. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000202

29.

Galen

L. W.

Kloet

J. D.

(2011). Mental well-being in the religious and the non-religious: Evidence for a curvilinear relationship. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 14(7), 673–689. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2010.510829

30.

Garssen

Visser

Pool

(2021). Does spirituality or religion positively affect mental health? Meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 31(1), 4–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508619.2020.1729570

31.

Gebauer

J. E.

Sedikides

Schönbrodt

F. D.

Bleidorn

Rentfrow

P. J.

Potter

Gosling

S. D.

(2017). The religiosity as social value hypothesis: A multi-method replication and extension across 65 countries and three levels of spatial aggregation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113(3), e18–e39. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000104

32.

Gervais

W. M.

Xygalatas

McKay

R. T.

Van Elk

Buchtel

E. E.

Aveyard

Schiavone

S. R.

Dar-Nimrod

Svedholm-Häkkinen

A. M.

Riekki

Klocová

E. K.

Ramsay

J. E.

Bulbulia

(2017). Global evidence of extreme intuitive moral prejudice against atheists. Nature Human Behaviour, 1(8), 0151. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-017-0151

33.

Good

Willoughby

Fritjers

(2009). Just another club? The distinctiveness of the relation between religious service attendance and adolescent psychosocial adjustment. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(9), 1153–1171. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-008-9320-9

34.

Greenfield

E. A.

Marks

N. F.

(2007). Religious social identity as an explanatory factor for associations between more frequent formal religious participation and psychological well-being. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 17(3), 245–259. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508610701402309

35.

Hackett

Cooperman

Fengyan Shi

Kramer

Marshall

Carlos Esparza Ochoa

Raja

U. S.

Tevington

Hodgson

(2018, June 13). The age gap in religion around the world. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2018/06/13/the-age-gap-in-religion-around-the-world/

36.

Hayward

R. D.

Krause

(2014). Religion, mental health, and well-being: Social aspects. In Saroglou

(Ed.), Religion, personality, and social behavior (pp. 255–280). Psychology Press.

37.

Hayward

R. D.

Krause

Ironson

Hill

P. C.

Emmons

(2016). Health and well-being among the non-religious: Atheists, agnostics, and no preference compared with religious group members. Journal of Religion and Health, 55(3), 1024–1037. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-015-0179-2

38.

Hoogeveen

Sarafoglou

Aczel

Aditya

Alayan

A. J.

Allen

P. J.

Altay

Alzahawi

Amir

Anthony

F.-V.

Kwame Appiah

Atkinson

Q. D.

Baimel

Balkaya-Ince

Balsamo

Banker

Bartoš

Becerra

Beffara

Wagenmakers

E.-J.

(2023). A many-analysts approach to the relation between religiosity and well-being. Religion, Brain & Behavior, 13, 237–283. https://doi.org/10.1080/2153599X.2022.2070255

39.

Horning

S. M.

Davis

H. P.

Stirrat

Cornwell

R. E.

(2011). Atheistic, agnostic, and religious older adults on well-being and coping behaviors. Journal of Aging Studies, 25(2), 177–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaging.2010.08.022

40.

Hwang

Hammer

J. H.

Cragun

R. T.

(2011). Extending religion-health research to secular minorities: Issues and concerns. Journal of Religion and Health, 50(3), 608–622. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-009-9296-0

41.

Inglehart

R. F.

(2020). Religion’s sudden decline: What’s causing it, and what comes next? Oxford University Press.

42.

Izadpanah

Barnow

Neubauer

A. B.

Holl

(2019). Development and validation of the Heidelberg form for emotion regulation strategies (HFERST): Factor structure, reliability, and validity. Assessment, 26(5), 880–906. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191117720283

43.

Jankowski

K. S.

(2015). Is the shift in chronotype associated with an alteration in well-being? Biological Rhythm Research, 46, 237–248. https://doi.org/10.1080/09291016.2014.985000

44.

Jetten

Haslam

S. A.

Cruwys

Greenaway

K. H.

Haslam

Steffens

N. K.

(2017). Advancing the social identity approach to health and well-being: Progressing the social cure research agenda: Applying the social cure. European Journal of Social Psychology, 47(7), 789–802. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2333

45.

Karim

Saroglou

(2023). Being agnostic, not atheist: Personality, cognitive, and ideological differences. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 15(1), 118–127. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000461

46.

Kitchens

M. B.

Phillips

R. E.

(2021). A curvilinear relationship between clear beliefs about God and self-concept clarity. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 13(1), 26–35. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000181

47.

Koenig

H. G.

Larson

D. B.

(2001). Religion and mental health: Evidence for an association. International Review of Psychiatry, 13(2), 67–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540260124661

48.

Kossakowska

Kwiatek

Stefaniak

(2013). Sens w życiu. Polska wersja kwestionariusza MLQ [Meaning in life. Polish version of Meaning in Life Questionnaire]. Psychologia Jakości Życia, 12(2), 111–131. https://doi.org/10.5604/16441796.1090786

49.

Leary

M. R.

(2010). Affiliation, acceptance, and belonging: The pursuit of interpersonal connection. In Fiske

S. T.

Gilbert

D. T.

Lindzey

(Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 864–897). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470561119.socpsy002024

50.

Lee

(2015). Recognizing the non-religious: Reimagining the secular. Oxford University Press.

51.

Lewis

C. A.

Cruise

S. M.

(2006). Religion and happiness: Consensus, contradictions, comments and concerns. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 9(3), 213–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/13694670600615276

52.

Lewis Hall

M. E.

Hill

. (2019). Meaning-making, suffering, and religion: A worldview conception. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 22(5), 467–479. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2019.1625037

53.

Lim

Putnam

R. D.

(2010). Religion, social networks, and life satisfaction. American Sociological Review, 75(6), 914–933. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122410386686

54.

Łowicki

Zajenkowski

(2017). Divine emotions: On the link between emotional intelligence and religious belief. Journal of Religion and Health, 56(6), 1998–2009. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-016-0335-3

55.

Luhtanen

Crocker

(1992). A collective self-esteem scale: Self-evaluation of one’s social identity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18(3), 302–318. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167292183006

56.

Lyubomirsky

Lepper

H. S.

(1999). A measure of subjective happiness: Preliminary reliability and construct validation. Social Indicators Research, 46(2), 137–155. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006824100041

57.

Mackey

C. D.

Silver

C. F.

Rios

Cowgill

C. M.

Hood

R. W.

(2021). Concealment of nonreligious identity: Exploring social identity threat among atheists and other nonreligious individuals. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 24(5), 860–877. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430220905661

58.

Magin

Z. E.

David

A. B.

Carney

L. M.

Park

C. L.

Gutierrez

I. A.

George

L. S.

(2021). Belief in God and psychological distress: Is it the belief or certainty of the belief? Religions, 12(9), 757. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12090757

59.

McCullough

M. E.

Willoughby

B. L. B.

(2009). Religion, self-regulation, and self-control: Associations, explanations, and implications. Psychological Bulletin, 135(1), 69–93. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014213

60.

Moore

J. T.

Leach

M. M.

(2016). Dogmatism and mental health: A comparison of the religious and secular. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 8(1), 54–64. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000027

61.

Park

C. L.

(2013). Religion and meaning. In Paloutzian

R. F.

Park

C. L.

(Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. 357–379). The Guilford Press.

62.

Pöhls

(2021). A complex simplicity: The relationship of religiosity and nonreligiosity to life satisfaction. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 60(3), 465–481. https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12723

63.

Pokimica

Addai

Takyi

B. K.

(2012). Religion and subjective well-being in Ghana. Social Indicators Research, 106(1), 61–79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-011-9793-x

64.

Price

M. E.

Launay

(2018). Increased wellbeing from social interaction in a secular congregation. Secularism and Nonreligion, 7, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.5334/snr.102

65.

Rounding

Lee

Jacobson

J. A.

L.-J.

(2012). Religion replenishes self-control. Psychological Science, 23(6), 635–642. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611431987

66.

Rubenstein

C. L.

Duff

Prilleltensky

Jin

Dietz

Myers

N. D.

Prilleltensky

(2016). Demographic group differences in domain-specific well-being. Journal of Community Psychology, 44(4), 499–515. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.21784

67.

Rutjens

B. T.

Van Harreveld

Van Der Pligt

Kreemers

L. M.

Noordewier

M. K.

(2013). Steps, stages, and structure: Finding compensatory order in scientific theories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 142(2), 313–318. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028716

68.

Salsman

J. M.

Brown

T. L.

Brechting

E. H.

Carlson

C. R.

(2005). The link between religion and spirituality and psychological adjustment: The mediating role of optimism and social support. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(4), 522–535. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271563

69.

Schnell

(2015). Dimensions of Secularity (DoS): An open inventory to measure facets of secular identities. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 25(4), 272–292. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508619.2014.967541

70.

Schnell

de Boer

Alma

(2023). Worlds apart? Atheist, agnostic, and humanist worldviews in three European countries. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 15(1), 83–93. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000446

71.

Schnell

Keenan

W. J. F.

(2011). Meaning-making in an atheist world. Archive for the Psychology of Religion, 33(1), 55–78. https://doi.org/10.1163/157361211X564611

72.

Seybold

K. S.

Hill

P. C.

(2001). The role of religion and spirituality in mental and physical health. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10(1), 21–24. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00106

73.

Silver

C. F.

Coleman

T. J.

Hood

R. W.

Holcombe

J. M.

(2014). The six types of nonbelief: A qualitative and quantitative study of type and narrative. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 17(10), 990–1001. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2014.987743

74.

Speed

Coleman

T. J.

Langston

(2018). What do you mean, “what does it all mean?” Atheism, nonreligion, and life meaning. SAGE Open, 8(1), 215824401775423. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244017754238

75.

Speed

Fowler

(2017). Good for all? Hardly! Attending church does not benefit religiously unaffiliated. Journal of Religion and Health, 56(3), 986–1002. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-016-0317-5

76.

Speed

Hwang

(2019). Heretic, heal thyself! Atheism, nonreligion, and health. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 11(3), 297–307. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000158

77.

Stavrova

Ehlebracht

Fetchenhauer

(2016). Belief in scientific–technological progress and life satisfaction: The role of personal control. Personality and Individual Differences, 96, 227–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.03.013

78.

Stavrova

Fetchenhauer

Schlösser

(2013). Why are religious people happy? The effect of the social norm of religiosity across countries. Social Science Research, 42(1), 90–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2012.07.002

79.

Steger

M. F.

Frazier

Oishi

Kaler

(2006). The meaning in life questionnaire: Assessing the presence of and search for meaning in life. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53(1), 80–93. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.53.1.80

80.

Streib

Klein

(2013). Atheists, agnostics, and apostates. In Pargament

K. I.

Exline

J. J.

Jones

J. W.

(Eds.), APA handbook of psychology, religion, and spirituality: Vol. 1. Context, theory, and research (pp. 713–728). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14045-040

81.

Suszek

Fronczyk

Kopera

Maliszewski

Łyś

E. A.

(2018). Psychometric properties of the Polish version of the Self-Concept Clarity Scale (SCCS). Current Issues in Personality Psychology, 6(3), 181–187. https://doi.org/10.5114/cipp.2018.75842

82.

Tajfel

Turner

J. C.

(2004). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In Jost

J. T.

Sidanius

(Eds.), Political psychology: Key readings (pp. 276–293). Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203505984-16

83.

Usborne

Taylor

D. M.

(2010). The role of cultural identity clarity for self-concept clarity, self-esteem, and subjective well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(7), 883–897. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167210372215

84.

Uzarevic

Coleman

T. J.

(2021). The psychology of nonbelievers. Current Opinion in Psychology, 40, 131–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.08.026

85.

van Mulukom

Turpin

Haimila

Purzycki

B. G.

Bendixen

Kundtová Klocová

Řezníček

Coleman

T. J.

Sevinç

Maraldi

Schjoedt

Rutjens

B. T.

Farias

. (2023). What do nonreligious nonbelievers believe in? Secular worldviews around the world. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 15(1), 143–156. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000480

86.

Verkuyten

(2007). Religious group identification and inter-religious relations: A study among Turkish-Dutch Muslims. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 10(3), 341–357. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430207078695

87.

Vishkin

Bigman

Tamir

(2014). Religion, emotion regulation, and well-being. In Kim-Prieto

(Ed.), Religion and spirituality across cultures (Vol. 9, pp. 247–269). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8950-9_13

88.

Wilkinson

P. J.

Coleman

P. G.

(2010). Strong beliefs and coping in old age: A case-based comparison of atheism and religious faith. Aging and Society, 30(2), 337–361. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X09990353

89.

Yeniaras

Akarsu

T. N.

(2017). Religiosity and life satisfaction: A multi-dimensional approach. Journal of Happiness Studies, 18(6), 1815–1840. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-016-9803-4

90.

Ysseldyk

Matheson

Anisman

(2010). Religiosity as identity: Toward an understanding of religion from a social identity perspective. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14(1), 60–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868309349693

91.

Zimet

G. D.

Dahlem

N. W.

Zimet

S. G.

Far-ley

G. K.

(1988). The multidimensional scale of perceived social support. Journal of Personality Assessment, 52, 30–41.

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.02 MB