Reclaiming the Hidden Curriculum: Embedding Empathy Development in Online Professional Psychology Training Through Experiential Learning

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated online psychology training, leading to a notable decline in empathy development among postgraduate students due to reduced face-to-face interaction. Central to fostering professional empathy is the hidden curriculum—the informal and implicit learning space that occurs through social and relational experiences, which is often lost in virtual settings. This article, grounded in Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) and Situated Learning Theory (SLT), argues that the intentional integration of hidden-curriculum elements into an online educational environment can compensate for diminished in-person experiential learning. Through semi-structured qualitative interviews with 10 psychology master’s students at a South African university, three key themes were identified: (1) perceived experiences of disconnection and isolation, (2) disruption of the hidden curriculum, and (3) empathy and readiness for professional practice. The findings are interpreted through the lens of Ubuntu philosophy, which underpins South African social realities and emphasises relationality, interconnectedness, and collective meaning-making. Participants highlighted the necessity of a culturally grounded capacity for deep interpersonal connection as central to their learning experiences. The absence of relational depth within supervisory interactions was found to significantly undermine students’ capacity to thrive in online learning environments. In response to these challenges, this study highlights several considerations for the improvement of postgraduate psychology training environments.

Theoretical models of experiential learning, originally developed for traditional face-to-face settings, can be adapted to digital learning environments, where they reveal critical gaps in the understanding of empathy development and the virtual hidden curriculum (Clark et al., 2010; Sarannee, 2024). The COVID-19 pandemic acted as a catalyst, highlighting the urgency of applying experiential learning theories to interpret and address the hidden curriculum under digital learning conditions.

While online learning is not a novel educational approach, it has evolved significantly with advancements in digital technology, where students often interact with academic content remotely and without the need for in-person interactions (Spaull & van der Berg, 2020). Despite the benefits of digital technology, online learning often hinders the development of nuanced student empathy and social connectedness, which are fostered through social integration across racial, cultural, and ethnic groups (Dhawan, 2020). The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated the adoption of virtual learning modalities across various disciplines, including health care education, where many programmes were compelled to transition to fully online formats. The rapid integration of technology during the COVID-19 pandemic revealed both the potential and the enduring limitations of digital pedagogy (Al-Ataby, 2020). As online and hybrid formats remain embedded in professional psychology training through blended teaching and supervision (Serag-Bolos et al., 2022), these limitations are especially salient for empathy development as a core professional competency for psychologists. The ongoing reliance on digitally mediated learning post-COVID-19 underscores the continued relevance and significance of examining relational learning in professional psychological higher education.

According to Baiano et al. (2022), empathy is a core psychological capacity that underpins ethical practice and effective professional functioning in health care education. While the COVID-19 pandemic accelerated the widespread adoption of online and hybrid learning, it primarily exposed long-standing limitations in digital pedagogy, particularly in relation to the relational and affective dimensions of learning. Empathy development has traditionally relied on spontaneous, embodied, and relational face-to-face interactions, which are difficult to replicate meaningfully in predominantly online learning environments. As a result, a persistent gap emerges between students’ theoretical competence and their capacity to engage empathically with others. For psychologists training in South Africa’s collectivist context, digital learning spaces present a unique design challenge and opportunity. The relational norms and practices essential to cultivating Ubuntu—the foundational empathic ethic for engaging with clients and communities—do not automatically translate to digital environments. Therefore, training programmes must intentionally design these spaces to facilitate the authentic transmission of empathy and interconnectedness, ensuring this critical grounding is not left to chance.

Research conducted during and beyond the pandemic consistently highlights the adverse effects of social isolation on students’ psychological well-being and academic engagement (Guillen et al., 2022; Martins et al., 2024), suggesting that these challenges are not unique to crisis conditions but reflect enduring shortcomings in digitally mediated learning contexts. Although online digital learning formats offer institutional flexibility, this often comes at the expense of adequately supporting students who experience isolation and disengagement. Furthermore, the long-term implications of diminished real-time feedback, the absence of in-person interactions, and the weakened social bonds between students and institutions experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic remain uncertain. The literature consistently identifies a gap in understanding how the hidden curriculum operates in online spaces, noting that while previous studies acknowledge the problem, they do not outline a concrete model to address it. This article addresses that gap directly by proposing a new, culturally adapted theoretical model for integrating the hidden curriculum into digital learning environments.

Empathy and the Hidden Curriculum

In South Africa’s evolving higher education landscape, the hidden curriculum offers a space for the development of empathy. The hidden curriculum refers to the informal, implicit, and often unacknowledged transmission of values, social norms, and attitudes and plays a critical role in the promotion of multicultural diversity and social inclusion (Boughey & McKenna, 2021; Öztok, 2019). While Western scholarship predominantly conceptualises empathy through affective and cognitive dimensions (Cuff et al., 2016), its implementation in higher education remains paradoxical. Despite being a core psychological competency, the development of empathy is systematically undervalued in institutions that prioritise measurable academic outputs over relational learning (Schnegg & Breyer, 2022). This tension becomes particularly acute in African contexts where collectivist values (Ratele, 2019; Schnegg & Breyer, 2022) demand social-emotional skills that massified education systems fail to cultivate. Archer et al. (2023) define empathy in the South African context as “an ability to understand other persons’ thoughts and feelings” (p. 2). The hidden curriculum in virtual learning environments thus presents a critical opportunity to redress this imbalance by creating intentional spaces for the development of empathy that bridge Western theoretical frameworks with indigenous African philosophies of interconnectedness.

While the hidden curriculum has been well-documented in traditional, in-person settings, its presence and adaptation in the online learning environment post-COVID-19 remain largely unexplored. Existing literature indicates a lack of structured frameworks to support the apparent integration of the hidden-curriculum elements into digital-based education. Öztok (2020) highlights the continuation of implicit social dynamics in online platforms and how they may reinforce systemic inequities; however, the author fails to propose a concrete model for addressing these issues. Similarly, Nahardani et al. (2021) identify multiple influences on the hidden curriculum in virtual settings, especially in psychological training, yet highlight the absence of a coherent strategy for its inclusion. Mpofu (2023), who examined accounting education among students, not only stressed the importance of aligning implicit messages with evolving digital competencies but also fell short of offering a holistic framework that speaks to the discipline of psychology. Collectively, these studies reveal a critical gap in the literature and underscore the need for a comprehensive approach to integrating the hidden curriculum and the empathy it cultivates into both traditional and online learning environments, thereby supporting the holistic development of students beyond academic performance alone.

Theoretical Framework

Kolb’s (1984) Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) and Situated Learning Theory (SLT) (Lave & Wenger, 1991) together provide a coherent framework for examining the development and disruption of empathy in online professional psychology training. ELT conceptualises learning as an iterative cycle of experience, reflection, conceptualisation, and experimentation, while SLT situates this process within social participation and communities of practice. In face-to-face contexts, these processes are sustained through embodied and relational mechanisms, such as affective attunement, emotional resonance, and immediate interpersonal feedback, largely transmitted through the hidden curriculum, including peer debriefings, observational learning, and informal interactions.

In digital learning environments, the reduction of embodied interaction disrupts both experiential learning cycles and the social structures that sustain communities of practice. As a result, reflective feedback loops are weakened, and opportunities for legitimate participation are diminished, compromising empathy development. Viewed together, ELT and SLT highlight that these challenges arise not merely from reduced contact but from the erosion of co-regulated, relational learning embedded in everyday professional practice. In response, this study proposes an adaptive model that aims to re-imagine hidden-curriculum practices within online spaces through structured dialogue, scaffolded mentorship, and guided reflection.

Research Question and Aim

This study, therefore, aimed to explore a critical gap: postgraduate psychology students’ perceptions and experiences of developing professional empathy in an online learning environment during the COVID-19 pandemic, a period defined by profound shifts in social connection. Consequently, the study was guided by the following primary research question:

• Research Question 1: How did postgraduate psychology students perceive and experience the development of professional empathy, specifically in relation to the altered structures of peer and pedagogical connectedness, within online learning environments during the COVID-19 pandemic?

Methodology

This study employed a qualitative research design that explored the experiences and perceptions of social connectedness and empathy among postgraduate psychology students in South Africa. The study was conducted within the Department of Psychology at a historically disadvantaged Higher Education Institution (HEI) situated in the Western Cape, recognised for its ethos of community engagement and its mission to drive social transformation. In 2023, 10 postgraduate students enrolled in structured master’s programmes in Research and Clinical Psychology were purposively sampled. Most participants were in their first or second year of postgraduate training, with most enrolled in their second year (seven participants) at the time of data collection. First-year coursework was delivered in a hybrid format, while the second year primarily involved in-person internship training, with thesis work typically completed online in the third year of registration. This positioning enabled participants to reflect meaningfully on their prior hybrid and online learning experiences and to evaluate how these modes of delivery prepared them for in-person professional internships. Both programmes are accredited by the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) and are highly competitive, admitting approximately 8–12 students annually through multiple interviews and assessment rounds. Data saturation, defined as the point at which no new themes or insights emerge, was achieved after 10 interviews (Saunders et al., 2018).

Data Collection Procedure

Semi-structured interviews were used to collect data, a method particularly effective for eliciting detailed and nuanced insights while allowing for probing and clarification. Participants were given the option to choose the format of the interview, and the majority preferred to be interviewed online. Each interview session lasted between 45 and 75 min. Examples of the types of questions asked were: How did you experience empathy in an online learning environment? How has the lack of social connectedness during the COVID-19 pandemic influenced your experiences of empathy with your peers and with your lecturers? How important is empathy in your professional career?

Ethical integrity was upheld through all components of this study. Approval was granted by the Humanities and Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee at the HEI (reference number HS22/4/9). Confidentiality was maintained through password-protected data storage and participant ID numbers. In accordance with the Protection of Personal Information Act (POPIA), all personal data were securely managed (Zenda et al., 2020). Given the sensitive nature of the psychological discourse, the study included provisions for psychological referrals in the event of emotional distress, consistent with medium-risk research guidelines (Iltis et al., 2013).

Data Analysis

Thematic analysis was carried out using ATLAS.ti—a qualitative data analysis software that facilitates the systematic organisation and coding of narrative data (Soratto et al., 2020). This process followed Braun and Clarke’s (2019) six-phase model of reflexive thematic analysis: data familiarisation, initial coding, theme generation, theme review, theme definition, and report writing. This approach accommodated the interactive and interpretive nature of qualitative analysis, particularly where researcher subjectivity was acknowledged and valued.

Throughout this study, the researcher maintained a reflexive stance, acknowledging that personal background, positionality, and subject interest could influence data interpretation and theme development (Davis, 2020). Credibility and dependability were supported through strategies such as regular supervisory consultations, debriefing, ongoing self-reflection, and the maintenance of a reflective journal, which enhanced transparency and mitigated interpretive bias (Nowell et al., 2017). Providing detailed descriptions of participants’ experiences within a historically disadvantaged HEI further strengthened transferability, enabling readers to assess the relevance of the findings to similar contexts. Collectively, these practices ensured confirmability and methodological rigour throughout the qualitative inquiry. As both a researcher and postgraduate psychology student, I (first author) remained aware of how my identity could shape data collection, using supervision and reflective journaling to manage these effects. My reflections were acknowledged and incorporated into the discussion.

Findings

This study illuminated the complex interplay between online learning environments and the formation of professional empathy of postgraduate psychology students during the COVID-19 pandemic. Drawing on the participants’ accounts, the data reflected a profound sense of disconnection and emotional isolation, particularly regarding the expression of empathy in the online learning environment. Three themes emerged from the data: Theme 1: Experiences of disconnection and isolation; Theme 2: The disruption of the hidden curriculum; and Theme 3: Empathy and readiness for practice.

Theme 1: Experiences of Disconnection and Isolation

Participants widely reported feeling emotionally and socially withdrawn from their peers, academic staff, and clinical supervisors. This sense of being withdrawn stemmed not only from physical isolation but also from the absence of informal and spontaneous interactions that typically support professional socialisation. This was evident in the quote, “For two years, since COVID, dealing with stuff on my own and not interacting with people, that isolation kind of makes you go within [yourself] and not really reach out” (P9). The lack of informal debriefing spaces, such as informal post-placement discussions, was perceived as a significant barrier to emotional processing and relational growth.

The absence of interpersonal engagement emerged as a significant concern, with participants highlighting a lack of relational depth in supervisory interactions. One participant reflected, “Communication between my supervisor and myself was just based on corrections, that was all it was, there was no proper connection” (P4). This sense of disconnection was exacerbated by broader contextual and infrastructural challenges, such as intermittent power outages (load-shedding) and unreliable internet connectivity. This is evident in the quote,

When the internet connection goes out, or you are trying to have a discussion where everyone’s video is off, interacting just wasn’t the same because I had to keep putting up my hand to say something. Eventually, you don’t try because then the moment passes and you can’t empathise as much as you could have in a face-to-face setting. (P3)

These barriers not only disrupted academic continuity but also prevented opportunities for peer collaboration and mutual support. Participants frequently reported that cultivating empathy, an essential part of their professional identities, was particularly challenging in this type of fragmented remote learning environment. Reflecting on these narratives, as the researchers, we were struck by how isolation was experienced as both practical and emotional. Our interpretation is that empathy was not absent, but its cultivation was hindered by the lack of seemingly common everyday encounters.

Theme 2: The Disruption of the Hidden Curriculum

The findings suggested that key elements of the hidden curriculum, such as informal mentorship, observational learning, and shared emotional experiences, were significantly diminished in the online environment. For example, Participant 7 reflected on being frequently overlooked by staff in email communications, as seen in this quote:

We are online, and the lecturers always say that we should always say if we need anything, we should not hesitate to email them. They say they will answer as soon as possible, and then you send the email, and they just do not answer. It would be better if I could walk past their office for a brief chat. (P7)

Here, the lack of personal connection reduced the immediacy and perceived value of feedback, highlighting how digital communication often failed to replicate the responsiveness of face-to-face exchanges. This was further accentuated in the quote,

So before lockdown, I would go to his [supervisor’s] office and knock on the door, and it would be so much easier to meet and ask any questions I might have. Whereas, the online platform just made it difficult for me to experience empathy, mainly because it was so difficult to access my supervisor. (P2)

This accentuates that having access to a supervisor or mentor has a direct link to a sense of empathy among the participants.

These accounts illustrate how students experienced disconnection, isolation, and a loss of informal interaction. While participants did not always describe empathy development directly, their reflections point to the absence of subtle, everyday encounters, such as spontaneous hallway conversations, observing colleagues’ emotional tone, and brief but meaningful exchanges, which traditionally would foster empathic awareness in clinical and research training. In this sense, the findings highlight that what was missed was not only access to supervisors but also the immersive social context in which empathy is typically modelled. As researchers, our concern is that empathy is not only conceptualised as a learned skill but also requires observation with a level of immersion. The absence of perceived empathy in these contexts suggests that what was disrupted was less the capacity for empathy itself and more the social environment in which it is nurtured.

Theme 3: Empathy and Readiness for Practice

Despite the constraints of online learning, participants affirmed the importance of empathy in their future professional roles. Within South African culture, which may be broadly characterised as collectivist, empathy was defined not only as an emotional response but also as a relational and contextual skill grounded in compassion, cultural awareness, and community-based values such as Ubuntu. For many, empathy was shaped by personal experiences, including religious teachings and early childhood environments. This is highlighted in the quote, “We need to exercise empathy in our culture. We just do this thing where you practice Ubuntu in a way, it’s umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu (Zulu), it’s you help me, I help you” (P6). Participants emphasised that empathy is essential for working with clients and communities, whether in research or clinical contexts. As explained here, “And already now it’s [empathy] playing a huge part in, you know, building that connection and building that rapport with my clients. I think, especially in the field of psychology, I think empathy is just so important” (P5). These reflections demonstrate that students held strong conceptual understandings of empathy and its professional relevance.

However, when discussing their training experiences during the pandemic, participants often spoke less about empathy directly and more about feelings of isolation, reduced opportunities for community engagement, and gaps in confidence. For instance, “I think that the COVID-19 pandemic did us in for the worse. I missed out on so much being online, I wish they [universities] could have done something” (P7). Here, the emphasis was on missed opportunities for experiential learning and outreach, which participants associated with their ability to practice empathy in real-world contexts.

In contrast, other participants reported feeling better prepared following the pandemic, viewing the experience as an opportunity to overcome adversity and build resilience. For example, one participant explained, “So I think in terms of being prepared, I think I’m now more prepared than anything because we survived and have adapted to new ways of doing what we have been trained to do” (P4). For this participant, navigating the online environment required intentional relationship-building and adaptability, which they perceived as strengthening their professional skills.

These contrasting accounts illustrate the complexity of learning in a novel context. While some students felt deprived of the full educational experience, others highlighted resilience and adaptability as valuable outcomes. Importantly, participants differed in their perceptions of what was essential for empathy development. For some participants, in-person community engagement remained irreplaceable, while others recognised the advantages of flexibility and new online competencies. Thus, while empathy was consistently valued, the evidence suggests that online learning primarily disrupted the informal, relational contexts in which empathy is usually practised and reinforced, rather than directly altering students’ empathic capacities.

As researchers, we are careful not to overstate claims about the development of empathy. The findings point more to differences in how students understood readiness for practice, rather than acknowledging changes in empathic ability itself.

Discussion

This study highlights the importance of empathy development within postgraduate psychology education while also revealing the limitations of online learning environments in fostering this capacity. The findings suggest that the key shift was not necessarily in students’ empathic ability itself, but rather in how they conceptualised their readiness for professional practice. Although empathy remained central to their understanding of competent practice, students described it in diverse ways. Participants viewed empathy not as an innate or fixed trait, but as a socially and culturally grounded capacity to form meaningful connections with others. Influenced by communal philosophies such as Ubuntu and shaped by lived experiences of poverty, violence, and social adversity, empathy was framed as an embodied, contextualised process of understanding (Mugumbate et al., 2024). This perspective challenges individualistic and trait-based definitions often found in Western psychological literature (Eichbaum et al., 2023) and instead supports a broader, more inclusive conception of empathy, particularly relevant to multicultural contexts such as South Africa. Upon reflection, the participants appeared to struggle to articulate a clear, formal definition of empathy. Instead, they consistently drew on personal experiences to convey what empathy meant to them. This tendency underscores the inherent complexity of defining empathy, particularly within a multicultural context such as South Africa, where diverse cultural, social, and relational frameworks shape how empathy is understood, expressed, and enacted.

Despite technological and environmental barriers (including frequent load-shedding, limited access to devices, and constrained digital infrastructure; Moonasamy & Naidoo, 2024), participants consistently recognised empathy as vital to their future roles in clinical or research settings. However, the shift to online learning imposed considerable obstacles. Students reported diminished opportunities for emotional engagement and relational learning due to reduced non-verbal communication, limited informal interaction, and minimal curriculum adaptation. The persistence of traditional curricular structures, shaped by regulatory constraints from professional bodies such as the HPCSA, meant that the development of empathy was insufficiently addressed during a period of heightened emotional and psychological need.

In addition, the findings reveal a noteworthy contrast: while some participants reported feeling unprepared for professional practice, others described a sense of preparedness that they attributed to the resilience they had developed. This divergence underscores the critical role universities play in bridging the gap between academic training and professional practice (Otermans et al., 2025). I (first author) felt particularly compelled to explore this gap and therefore attended closely to participants’ body language and tone during the interviews. In several instances, I observed subtle emotional responses when postgraduate students were asked to reflect on their readiness for professional practice following their master’s year. Many required time to pause and think before responding, suggesting that they had not previously been afforded sufficient opportunities to critically reflect on their professional preparedness. This may also point to the broader impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on students’ prospects and personal goals.

These observations align with the view that students should begin developing the skills, confidence, and reflective capacity required to thrive in the workplace well before entering it (Otermans et al., 2025). Consistent with this, the literature indicates that postgraduate students who successfully cultivate key graduate attributes tend to be more employable and well-rounded than their peers (Bitzer & Withering, 2020). Such development is often facilitated by strong institutional structures, active staff engagement, and high-quality supervision, all of which support students’ academic progression and enhance their readiness for the demands of professional practice (Frantz et al., 2022). The hidden curriculum emerged as a significant, yet underutilised, component of online professional training. Students consistently lamented the loss of informal mentorship, peer support, and emotional validation, interpersonal elements typically fostered through face-to-face interactions (Behmanesh et al., 2025). The first author’s engagement in reflective praxis, including journaling and supervisory debriefing, further highlighted the value of structured reflection in extending learning beyond formal content and in fostering the development of professional identity.

Implications for Online Higher Educational Environments

The findings of this study highlight several considerations for the improvement of online or hybrid postgraduate psychology training environments. Rather than suggesting definitive solutions, these implications are derived from participants’ experiences and may inform future research and pilot interventions within the South African higher education context.

Reintroducing Relational Spaces in Online Learning

Participants consistently described feelings of social and emotional isolation, particularly the loss of informal peer and supervisor interactions that typically occur in physical learning environments. These findings suggest that online training programmes may benefit from intentional opportunities for informal relational engagement.

For example, programmes could consider incorporating opportunities for peer and supervisor interaction that extend beyond formal academic supervision. Informal group discussions, reflective peer meetings, or scheduled open discussion sessions may help recreate aspects of the spontaneous conversations that participants identified as important for emotional processing and professional socialisation. Such spaces may provide opportunities for students to discuss challenging experiences, seek clarification, and build supportive professional relationships.

Reconsidering the Hidden Curriculum in Digital Contexts

The disruption of the hidden curriculum emerged as a central theme in the findings. Participants frequently described how elements such as observational learning, informal mentorship, and spontaneous access to supervisors were diminished in the online environment. These elements traditionally contribute to the development of professional identity and relational competence (Niazi et al., 2024). In response, online programmes may benefit from more deliberate attention to how the hidden curriculum operates within digital learning spaces. This could include creating opportunities for collaborative discussion, peer observation, and shared reflection on clinical or research experiences (Uleanya, 2022). While such approaches cannot fully replicate the immersion of in-person learning environments, they may help support the interpersonal and relational dimensions of training that participants described as missing during the pandemic.

Supporting Experiential Learning and Readiness for Practice

Participants strongly emphasised the importance of empathy and relational engagement in their future professional roles, often framing these qualities within culturally grounded values such as Ubuntu. However, many also expressed concern about missed opportunities for community engagement and practical learning during the pandemic. These findings suggest that postgraduate psychology training programmes may need to prioritise experiential learning opportunities where possible, even within hybrid or partially online training models. This may include facilitating structured opportunities for community engagement, supervised applied practice, or reflective discussions of real-world experiences. Such activities may support the integration of theoretical knowledge with culturally grounded relational practice (Lamph et al., 2023).

Conclusion

This study underscores the significant impact of the transition to online learning on postgraduate psychology education in South Africa during the COVID-19 pandemic. Given South Africa’s cultural and social complexity, empathy is not a peripheral skill but a core professional competency essential for delivering person-centred care. Rather than indicating a decline in students’ empathic capacity, the findings highlight a reconfiguration of readiness for professional practice, shaped by experiences of isolation and reduced opportunities for informal learning. These insights underscore the importance of intentionally integrating relational, experiential, and reflective components into online and hybrid training environments to better support the development of empathy and professional identity. The findings affirm that the hidden curriculum is central to the holistic development of psychology professionals, necessitating a collaborative reimagining of curriculum design by educators, policymakers, and accrediting bodies to ensure the preparation of compassionate, contextually attuned, and resilient practitioners in future pandemic situations.

Limitations

This study has several limitations that should be acknowledged when interpreting the findings. First, the small sample size restricts the depth of perspectives represented and may limit the robustness of the conclusions drawn. Second, the focus on a single institution provides valuable contextual insight but constrains the extent to which the results can be generalised to other settings with different structures, cultures, or support systems. In addition, the use of purposive sampling, while appropriate for accessing participants with relevant experience, may introduce selection bias and further limit generalisability.

Recommendations and Future Research

The findings of this study highlight the need for strategic improvements in both policy and curriculum design within professional psychology education, particularly as online and hybrid training modalities continue to expand. The disruption of the hidden curriculum during the COVID-19 pandemic exposed significant vulnerabilities in the development of empathy, relational competence, and professional identity, skills that are foundational to psychological practice yet insufficiently supported in current digital learning environments. These challenges present an opportunity for institutions to reconceptualise the hidden curriculum as a deliberate area of pedagogical focus, especially within collectivist cultures such as South Africa. Embedding its principles within accreditation frameworks and shifting from regulatory compliance to innovation-driven approaches may enable South African universities to become active stewards of professional identity formation, acknowledging Ubuntu as a philosophy that enhances professional empathic practice. Accreditation bodies, in turn, could serve as collaborative partners in cultivating a psychology profession that is competent, resilient, and ethically responsive to future crises.

University psychology departments have an essential responsibility to equip educators and supervisors with the skills necessary to facilitate the hidden curriculum in online contexts. This includes training in digital pedagogy, trauma-informed supervision, and methods for fostering informal community-building in online spaces (Bitzer et al., 2018; Torralba et al., 2020). Institutions should also invest in flexible curricular designs that integrate experiential learning through evidence-based digital tools. These may include artificial intelligence (AI)-supported simulations, digital storytelling activities, and structured peer-support networks, all of which help recreate the relational and practice-based elements often lost in online environments. Practical options suitable for the South African context include mobile-friendly platforms such as Chat Generative Pre-Trained Transformer (ChatGPT) (Maphalala, 2025), collaborative tools like Discord and Padlet, immersive resources such as 360° video field visits, and adaptable learning management systems, for example, Moodle (Afolabi & Ajani, 2023). Such innovations are critical for preserving the integrity and transformative potential of professional training in psychology.

Given these considerations, future research should expand beyond the limitations of this study by including larger, more diverse samples across multiple institutions. Comparative studies examining differences between universities, disciplines, and programme types would provide deeper insights into the contextual factors shaping students’ preparedness for practice. Mixed-methods and longitudinal designs may be particularly valuable for tracing the development of graduate attributes and workplace readiness over time. Moreover, as online education becomes more prevalent, longitudinal investigations into the integration of virtual hidden-curriculum strategies are needed. These studies should assess their impact on empathy, emotional readiness, patient engagement, and long-term professional identity development among students in digitally modified programmes. Such research will be essential for evaluating the effectiveness, scalability, and sustainability of these pedagogical innovations within South African higher education and beyond.