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Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic caused interruptions to traditional teaching and training methods in academic programmes, which forced a quick move to online platforms. This qualitative study investigates the experiences of psychology master’s students in South Africa during this time. Using Rønnestad and Skovholt’s counsellor development model, we investigated students’ views on how their professional identities were impacted. Thematic analysis was used to examine data from semi-structured interviews with eight psychology master’s students from various South African universities. The results revealed several challenges, including feelings of loss, uncertainty, ‘virtual adjustment’, and unmet needs. Students, however, also mentioned developing resilience, flexibility, and new skills, particularly in self-directed learning and teletherapy. The results imply that, while online learning posed challenges towards professional development, it also helped students develop skills that are becoming more valuable in modern psychological practice. This study highlights the importance of incorporating blended learning strategies and enhancing institutional support systems to ensure the consistency and effectiveness of professional psychology training. This research adds to a more thorough understanding of professional identity development in crisis times, by framing these findings within a broader developmental framework. The implications go beyond the pandemic, providing insights into the future of psychology training in resource-constrained and digitally integrated environments.

Keywords

Applied master’s degree COVID-19 online learning professional development psychology students

Introduction

A thriving community of students, educators, and regulatory organisations collaborates to train and accredit ethical and competent psychologists. A professional master’s degree in psychology in South Africa is an accredited qualification that is aligned with the National Qualification Framework for Education, the Health Professions Council of South Africa, and the National Framework for Human Resources for Health in South Africa. Such conformity ensures that the content of the degree encompasses the necessary theoretical understanding, therapeutic proficiency, and competency regarding ethical, safe, and effective practices, and adheres to established performance standards. Achieving these competencies requires a well-structured pedagogical approach that typically includes direct supervision, case presentations, role-playing, patient interaction, and group work, all traditionally implemented within in-person teaching environments. Training challenges became more complex in March 2020, when the WHO declared a worldwide pandemic status. As a result of the pandemic and restrictions, numerous and speedy adjustments were made to teaching practices. The most significant effect was for face-to-face training to be adapted to online platforms. The shift to online teaching challenged students with reduced face-to-face interaction, increased reliance on self-discipline, and varying access to technology, impacting their engagement and learning experiences. Understanding the impact of the online shift caused by COVID-19 is crucial as it reveals changes in students’ learning experiences, mental health, and practical training, informing how education can be adapted to better support development and well-being during crises.

A corpus of literature, focusing on the impact of COVID-19 on education, has since emerged (Bozkurt et al., 2022; Dhawan, 2020; Goghari et al., 2020; Naidoo & Cartwright, 2022; Pokhrel & Chhetri, 2021). A prominent feature within this literature is that students perceived their educational experiences during this time as inferior to those of pre-pandemic times (Wilczewski et al., 2021). Conversely, other studies suggest that the crisis offers an opportunity to rethink and innovate teaching and learning processes, potentially improving quality of training (Mok, 2022).

For master’s in psychology training in South Africa, components such as supervision and work-integrated learning had to be re-evaluated, leading to adjustments and the need for upskilling among both students and lecturers (Qhogwana et al., 2023). Literature comparing how students within the different branches of psychology (clinical, counselling, and educational) experienced the challenges of online learning is scarce. There is however consensus across categories that online learning and therapy required tailored approaches and technological support to effectively address their unique challenges (Qhogwana et al., 2023). Moreover, when focusing on students’ experiences in the applied master’s programmes in psychology in South Africa specifically, the country’s social fabric dynamics, historical inequities, and resource disparities make it a unique case for exploration. Despite a lack of South African research addressing the effects and experiences of the transition to online learning for psychology students, one can argue that the transition posed greater challenges to South African students due to limited access to technology (such as data and laptops), financial burdens, and students living in remote areas. These realities also emphasised the prevailing inequalities in South Africa’s training and health care system, placing certain students at a huge disadvantage (Lourens & Uren, 2023; Schneider et al., 2021). Added to these challenges are the pandemic’s shared mental health concerns, including stress, anxiety, burnout, and depression (Padmanabhanunni & Pretorius, 2021).

Understanding the experiences of psychology students specifically, and within the South African context, is critical for tailoring training approaches that are contextually relevant and responsive to the students’ diverse needs. Also, vocational training, as in this case, differs from purely academic learning because it seeks to equip students with a repertoire of skills that directly correspond to their future roles as practising professionals. As the effects of the pandemic on teaching will be long-lasting and continue to be widely felt, this study aimed to understand the experiences of master’s students in psychology during that time. Filling the knowledge gap on how students experienced the shift to online teaching due to COVID-19, is important to inform effective educational strategies that enhance learning, support student well-being, and prepare academic programmes for future disruptions.

This may not only be helpful in future extraordinary circumstances but could also be relevant and useful for implementation within existing frameworks of teaching and training.

Theoretical framework

To theoretically frame this study, we considered several professional development models and theories. Most of these focus on supervisory practices, which, however, may give a limited perspective and do not fully encompass the complete growth and development of psychology professionals. Therefore, it was important to us to broaden the scope and explore other theories and models that provide more comprehensive viewpoints. The Rønnestad and Skovholt’s (2003) model includes a wide range of elements that go beyond what supervisory models cover. Unlike their predecessors, Rønnestad and Skovholt (2003) embarked upon an inquiry into the full professional lifespan of therapists (they refer mostly to counsellors). Their model arose from a qualitative longitudinal study involving interviews with 100 therapists at various career stages and captured many perspectives (Rønnestad and Skovholt, 2003). They then charted a developmental path from the lay helper to the senior professional stage, and presented 14 themes of counsellor development, each highlighting a crucial facet of the developmental journey. Discussing each stage and theme goes beyond the scope of this article, although some relevant themes, as they relate to the findings of this study, are briefly presented.

Rønnestad and Skovholt’s (2003) first few themes highlight the dynamic interaction between a counsellor’s professional and personal identities and maintain that the connection between these personas solidifies over time. These themes underscore the importance of a deep-seated commitment to learning and a willingness to take ethically appropriate risks to enhance professional competency. Other themes draw attention to the transformation from reliance on external expertise to the somewhat slow and non-linear nature of internal and professional development. In addition, they add that interpersonal influences propel professional development and posit that interpersonal sources of influence have greater propulsion than ‘impersonal’ sources. Therapists have reported that meaningful interactions with clients, supervisors, mentors, professional peers, and personal connections have been crucial catalysts for their growth (Moss et al., 2014).

Rønnestad and Skovholt (2003) similarly explore the strong affective reactions towards graduate training and professional elders. The power dynamic within the student-professional and elder relationship often induces strong emotional responses, with students either idealising or devaluing their seniors. The pandemic might have intensified these affective responses since most interpersonal interactions had been relegated to the digital realm. The implications of these altered dynamics on the development of the professional identities of the student therapists and the students’ eventual transition into the profession, warrant careful consideration. For instance, the potential of technology to mediate these affective reactions remains an under-researched area.

Another theme of relevance for this study refers to the heightened acceptance, appreciation, and recognition of human variability. This theme emphasises the profound impact of personal and professional experiences in fostering wisdom and self-acceptance. The global crisis brought about by the pandemic undoubtedly exposed student therapists to more human suffering than before. This unprecedented experience could have accelerated their appreciation for human variability and enhanced their ability to empathise with a broad spectrum of human experiences. We were wondering how this exposure, during a crucial stage of their professional development, might have influenced their training experiences? Finally, another theme considers the realignment from self-as-hero to client-as-hero. Over time, therapists typically realise that their role is not to rescue their clients, but rather to empower them to become their own rescuers. The pandemic, with its accompanying disruptions, may have accelerated this process of realisation for student therapists, and this ‘premature confrontation’ could have had ramifications on their confidence and sense of competence. As they grappled with their own vulnerabilities and limitations, they might have gained early insight into the inherent limitations of their roles.

A contextual reinterpretation of the themes proposed by Rønnestad and Skovholt (2003), served as an analytical lens for understanding the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on the teaching and training experiences of psychology master’s students in South Africa.

Methodology

Research aim and objectives

This study aimed to explore the training experiences of students in applied master’s programmes in psychology during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The objectives include (a) the positioning of these perspectives and experiences within the professional developmental themes described by Rønnestad and Skovholt (2003) and (b) providing recommendations for educational strategies and support systems that could address future directions for the teaching of psychology. The following research question was driving the study: What were the training experiences of students in applied master’s psychology programmes during the pandemic, and how do these experiences relate to professional development themes?

Research design

Given the objective of an in-depth exploration of the experiences of students, a qualitative research paradigm was chosen. An exploratory and descriptive study design was adopted as this allowed for the identification, conceptualisation, and discussion of experiences (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011).

Recruitment strategy

A purposeful sampling strategy was used to select participants who could offer insightful accounts based on the research objectives (Palinkas et al., 2015). Eight participants, enrolled for an applied master’s degree in psychology at different South African universities in 2020, were recruited. No exclusion was made based on any demographic detail or specific category of psychology. The sample size of eight participants was primarily based on the concept of data saturation (Smith & Bowers-Brown, 2010) and the research design (exploratory and descriptive) supporting smaller and more focused samples (Fugard & Potts, 2015). Saturation was reached with consensus that, apart from prominent individual experiences (such as suffering from a chronic disease), no additional data of significance continued to surface. Participants’ demographics are outlined in Table 1 below:

Table 1.

Demographic information of the participants.

Pseudoname	Age	Gender	Programme	University
Debby	25	Female	Educational	University of Johannesburg
Bonolo	29	Female	Counselling	University of Pretoria
Michelle	36	Female	Clinical	Northwest University
Lerato	42	Female	Clinical	Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University
Sam	30	Male	Counselling	University of KwaZulu-Natal
Kamo	31	Male	Clinical	University of South Africa
Ruby	25	Female	Educational	University of Pretoria
Keke	27	Female	Counselling	Rhodes University

Data collection

Data were gathered using semi-structured interviews as a versatile and powerful tool for collecting qualitative data, especially when seeking to understand personal experiences and perspectives (DiCicco-Bloom & Crabtree, 2006). Each participant engaged in one interview, lasting between 40 and 60 minutes. The interviews were conducted on an online platform because of the geographical dispersion of the participants across the various provinces in South Africa, and the need to abide by the social distancing norms necessitated by the pandemic at the time of data collection. The interview guide, informed by Creswell (2012), included open-ended questions focusing on the exploration of the individual teaching and training experiences of the participants regarding the applied master’s courses in psychology throughout 2020. The semi-structured design of the dialogues facilitated flexible interactions, encouraging participants to reflect openly on their experiences while allowing the interviewer the freedom to seek further clarification or elaboration when necessary. Participants’ initial expectations were explored through opening questions such as, ‘What was your idea of applied master’s Psychology training outside of the COVID-19 pandemic?’ This was followed by probing questions like: ‘How did you experience this new way of learning?’ and ‘What do you think the impact of these experiences was on your process of becoming a psychologist?’

Data analysis

The data were analysed using thematic analysis, guided by the six-step procedure outlined by Braun and Clarke (2006). This approach began with meticulously listening to the interview recordings and reading and re-reading the interview transcripts. Two researchers labelled meaningful units as codes, resulting in 137 open codes (examples of open codes are restructuring the timetable, what about seeing patients?, and will we write exams?). Each code represented a specific, concrete idea. These codes were then grouped and combined based on similarities and relationships, allowing us to identify broader patterns across the dataset and develop potential themes (an example is unsure about practicalities). Twenty initial themes were developed based on the interpretation of these groups, reflecting more abstract ideas and providing insight into the research question (an example is Fear of the unknown). These 20 themes were refined and named to capture their essence (an example is The impact of not knowing). Because this study employed a conceptual framework based on Rønnestad and Skovholt’s (2003) theory of counsellor development, the data were analysed through the lens of this framework, which loosely guided the deductive extraction of key themes.

Results

An integral part of the learning component of an applied master’s degree in psychology is the experience of conducting psychotherapy. Therefore, master’s students are exposed not only to the theoretical aspects of ‘doing psychotherapy’ but also to the experiential component of being the therapist. The study’s results refer to these two components interchangeably, indicating them (in brackets) as either the virtual learning experience or the virtual counselling experience.

Theme 1: loss of interaction, practical learning, and myself

The losses experienced by the participants were mainly associated with the shortcomings encountered during their training in 2020. These were classified as interactional losses with patients and practical learning opportunities, acknowledged as essential components of the training programme. Theme one and its two subthemes is illustrated in Figure 1 below:

Figure 1.

‘Loss of interaction, practical learning, and myself’.

Subtheme 1.1: compromised interaction with patients

The participants expressed the need for physical attendance in therapeutic sessions and to acquire hands-on experience in face-to-face therapy. In particular, the participants indicated that sharing body language and non-verbal cues was critical to the sessions. The lack of a human connection with patients was particularly significant:

Whereas if you had seen a client, they would present a variety of symptoms and stuff. You get the opportunity to see it live, and the client would get to see your body language response. It’s a connection both a client and therapist needs. (Bonolo, virtual counselling experience)

[b]ecause it’s Psychology, it’s supposed to be face-to-face. I need to see you, and I need to see your non-verbal cues and observe if you’re sensitive to something. I need to see more behind the screen. And we were denied that. . . . (Michelle, virtual counselling experience)

Subtheme 1.2: being lost myself

Most participants reported a loss of interactive day-to-day conversations and engagements with colleagues and lecturers. According to them, physical connections would have enabled classmates to have general discussions during and after classes. Losing out on these created a sense of being lost themselves:

So that was something that I felt that I was almost robbed of, you know, that personal contact, sitting in a class, being able to talk to your classmates, make jokes and stuff like that I really enjoyed. So I feel like that was very taken away when we had to go online because there’s also that interaction element. (Debby, virtual learning experience)

I enjoy that personal engagement. As much as everyone can say, online has perks and it does—you can go to get what you need done online—but I think having the human element of connection is as vital [as] face to face. (Kamo, virtual learning experience)

I think what’s valuable with face-to-face learning the connections is, the connections that you make with the lecturers, with your colleagues, but most importantly—I mean, that’s what Psychology is about at the end of the day, so it’s the connections you make with people. (Bonolo, virtual learning experience)

Considering theme one, the lack of interaction and connection during a critical professional developmental period parallels the importance that Rønnestad and Skovholt (2003) attribute to the relational aspects of professional development. Furthermore, the implied need in theme one for a more hands-on learning experience aligns with the deep-seated commitment to learning as described by Rønnestad and Skovholt (2003).

Theme 2: the impact of not knowing

The sudden transition to lockdown created many uncertainties, primarily due to inadequate communication and guidance during the initial weeks. Participants felt a sense of unpredictability regarding their academic and career prospects, as illustrated in theme two below in Figure 2:

Figure 2.

‘The impact of not knowing’.

Subtheme 2.1: sudden change

The perceived abruptness of the transition caused anxiety and a sense of unpreparedness:

I think in about March or so, so they shut us down and they sent everybody home. And then, we didn’t know what was happening for a good two months; there wasn’t like communication; there wasn’t set up for online – nothing. (Sam, virtual learning experience)

[B]ecause when we just got into the programme, suddenly everything had to stop. Suddenly the world was just ending when we arrived. (Ruby, virtual learning experience)

We were doing our practicals on site and then suddenly, you know, the pandemic hit, and we have to stay at home. And this is quite a stressful period, I think for myself, my classmates, and of course, the university and the coordinator at ** to figure out how we’re going to continue the programme. (Lerato, virtual learning experience)

Subtheme 2.2: fear of the unknown

The participants expressed their fears of the programme’s trajectory and potential future structure. Participants were explicitly anxious about training prospects and not having clarity about how the institutions would resolve the situation:

We all started, you know, messaging the university. What are we going to do now? You know, what’s happening with training? (Keke, virtual learning experience)

We found ourselves constantly having to ask like, what’s next? And what are we doing? Are we going to write exams this way? What about our class presentations, etcetra. (Sam, virtual learning experience)

Fear was prominent, with most participants expressing concern about the potential discontinuation of the programme:

[T]here was a fear of like, does this mean I’m never gonna get my degree? You know, because I think there’s an element for me with getting into a clinical Master’s that this is the be all and end all. (Kamo, virtual learning experience)

So when something like this happens – COVID has happened, a lockdown has happened – we’ve never experienced this before. You know, so it was like, what if they take this away? (Debbie, virtual learning experience)

[A]nd we were [sic] all just sent home, and we didn’t know what our futures were going to look like. (Bonolo, virtual learning experience)

This theme captures the need for structure, predictability and comprehension as described by Rønnestad and Skovholt (2003) within the beginning student phase: ‘A life-saver for the beginning student is to learn easily mastered, straightforward, counselling/therapy methods (models, systems, approaches, frameworks) that can be absorbed quickly with focused effort and that hopefully can be applied to all clients’ (p. 12).

Theme 3: going virtual

Theme 3 revealed the experiences of moving from face-to-face learning to virtual learning as described by the participants, with the subthemes detailing their online learning and therapy experiences. Theme 3 and its two subthemes is captures in Figure 3 below:

Figure 3.

Going virtual.

Subtheme 3.1: how to learn online

The participants shared that the transition to online learning elicited both positive and negative feelings. Participants stated that they felt detached from each other during virtual learning and longed for more instantaneous, less calculated responses:

I didn’t like it at all. I felt that it was very impersonal, so – for myself as well. But that’s just my own stuff as I was home-schooled for most of my life, and then I went to ***(University’s name). So I’ve never really gotten an opportunity to actually go to university. (Debby, virtual learning experience)

Online took away the ability to get an instant response and to be able to ask questions. The lectures would talk so much that by the time you are granted the space to ask questions, you have struggled with following what you are being taught. (Sam, virtual learning experience)

Some participants however, appreciated the personal autonomy that came with virtual learning. It permitted a sense of comfort as they were able to be with loved ones during a trying period.

It allowed us sort of freedom and during a difficult time to be with loved ones. And allowed [a] sort of security – feeling safe, not having to sort of go and be at risk. (Ruby, virtual learning experience)

I enjoyed the flexibility of working at my own time. I could work really hard for two days, get all the work done and then take a day off—take two days off. So the flexibility and time management, that was sort of a pro for me. (Sam, virtual learning experience)

Subtheme 3.2: my online patient

Online therapy prompted participants to engage in more introspection and to articulate their challenges and ethical dilemmas. Participants noted that online therapy posed difficulties in the clinical setting, including a breach of both confidentiality and privacy:

[S]he became very triggered, and I couldn’t contain her on the phone. We had to just stop the session. So it presented a lot of clinical challenges, and I think ethical challenges also. (Keke, virtual counselling experience)

So having to see a client, I have to make sure people are not home because they can hear what I’m talking about, I’m saying to the client, what the client is saying to me. So there’s a lot of breaching of confidentiality and privacy. So those were some of the dilemmas. (Ruby, virtual counselling experience)

This theme encompasses two key ideas. The first involves the unexpected adjustment to a new mode of learning, while the second relates to the experience of meeting and working with a client through a screen. This aligns with Rønnestad and Skovholt’s (2003) themes concerning predictability and the significance of the initial client contact. Rønnestad and Skovholt emphasise that meeting clients for the first time is a critical incident and the most important task faced during the early student phase. However, in the context of virtual therapy, this process deviates from the norm and may have been experienced as somewhat compromised.

Theme 4: I am in need

Pursuing a professional qualification involves various needs to be satisfied which facilitate personal and educational growth. Failure to meet these resulted in frustration and incapacity to manage the programme’s demands. This theme is illustrated in Figure 4 below:

Figure 4.

I am in need.

Subtheme 4.1: emotional needs

Most of the participants noted the lack of emotional support they received from their departments. It was experienced as an unfulfilled need during this demanding and anxiety-inducing time, with only a few participants reporting that they indeed did receive support:

In terms of like supporting us on how we felt and what we were going through with the pandemic, I feel like that was a little bit lacking. So, I feel from an emotional standpoint, there wasn’t that support. (Debbie, virtual learning experience)

But I think that they could have maybe just, even in the meantime, do like a WhatsApp group session, whatever, where we get to voice our fears, and maybe just back some comfort or also a little bit more guidance. (Kamo, virtual learning experience)

And because it was very anxiety-provoking for everybody, so I feel that they could have opened communication and a little bit more emotional support. (Bonolo, virtual learning experience)

They were very supportive. They checked in. We also had a check-in every Friday; like I said, we had group. It was always a space to just debrief, check in with each other. (Ruby, virtual learning experience)

Subtheme 4.2: practical needs

Access to practical resources is essential for day-to-day virtual learning and was considered a problem by most of the participants. Power outages, limited data, and weak internet connections were some challenges that influenced participants’ ability to focus and participate effectively:

[S]omething that I struggled with was load shedding. And also, I live in an area where we constantly have power failures. So, at that point, I never had anything, and then we have no internet connection. So, I often had to climb in my car and drive out to find connection or to find to buy more data, which was very stressful as a student at the time as well. (Lerato, virtual learning experience)

I literally had to attend Zoom meetings by data, and at that time, I could not concentrate as I would be worried about my data being depleted during the lessons. So, my anxiety levels were high the entire time, and this affected my effectiveness. (Michelle, virtual learning experience)

It wasn’t an ongoing thing where they [sic] provided data, but they did provide students with data to actually say, ‘There is connectivity for you to be up and running. (Kamo, virtual learning experience)

So, they gave us data. So, I think that was helpful if they could have continued doing that – because then it just stopped. So, if they could have continued doing that so we all had data, and we all had, we had all the same connectivity, and we were able to always connect and be present. (Keke, virtual learning experience)

Rønnestad and Skovholt (2003) posit that when beginning students’ emotional and practical needs are not met, it impedes optimal development as it creates barriers to crucial processes like seeking guidance from experts, engaging in honest self-reflection and effectively managing anxiety. Furthermore, Rønnestad and Skovholt highlight the impact of personal life on professional functioning, suggesting that unresolved emotional needs can significantly affect professional growth.

Theme 5: rising from the experience

Participants reported on personal growth, resilience, and adaptability, which helped to overcome pandemic-related disruptions – skills that are pertinent to the professional and personal development of student psychologists. This theme is visually presented in Figure 5 below:

Figure 5.

Rising from the experience.

Subtheme 5.1: personal growth

The participants identified growth that augment their development as professionals, noted as perseverance, determination, and tenacity:

I think it helped us to kind of become a bit more resilient. And after that, we actually got along more for whatever reason. I think because now we have to work together, we had to just see eye to eye, put our differences aside, and move forward. (Keke, virtual learning experience)

And I think that’s another thing of being put in different situations, you find the strength, and you find the resources to actually adapt to and use in various situations. (Sam, virtual learning experience)

So, it really put the learning in our hands—a lot of it. Yeah, it was a bit frustrating. It felt like they had kind of said, ‘Well, we don’t know what to do so we’re just gonna make you do what you can’. (Bonolo, virtual learning experience)

Subtheme 5.2: student-professional exhilaration

Acquiring a diverse range of skills and practical exposure is important in an applied psychology training programme. The participants talked about how they have grown professionally, especially working as student psychologists during the tough times of the pandemic. Being flexible and trying out new ways of learning were seen as key factors that helped them develop in their careers:

So it really taught me to be adaptable. I grew from that experience. So, I know I can adapt to any unpredictability that happens within my career or my job. (Michelle, virtual learning and counselling experience)

We had a lecture on online therapy, which I think is very futuristic. And it gave us the opportunity and how do we conduct therapy online, which I would say that people who didn’t go through the pandemic, didn’t get that exposure. They didn’t get to learn about that. I was impressed. (Lerato, virtual learning experience)

I think, for me, it was learning about teletherapy and the ethics that go with it. (Keke, virtual learning experience)

This theme underscores what Rønnestad and Skovholt (2003) refer to as experience with suffering contributing to successful professional development. In addition, it relates to their idea that professional development is both lifelong and erratic. As illustrated in this theme, the disruption possibly served as an accelerator, enabling students to master certain competencies more quickly than expected.

Discussion

The exploration of the experiences of master’s students in applied psychology programmes during the COVID-19 pandemic offers a nuanced understanding of the challenges and opportunities that arose. Drawing parallels with the theoretical framework of Rønnestad and Skovholt (2003), three distinct areas were discerned through the participants’ experiences.

First, there are emotional components involved in becoming a qualified psychologist. The COVID-19 pandemic changed the emotional landscape for students in applied master’s psychology programmes. As aspiring psychologists, students not only navigate their academic paths but also develop into professionals capable of effective engagement. During the pandemic, psychology students experienced a significant decline in emotional well-being, with higher levels of anxiety, stress, and symptoms of depression becoming common (Visser & Law-van Wyk, 2021). For these students, mental health challenges appeared through burnout, moderate symptoms of post-traumatic stress, and functional impairments that affected their learning and involvement (de Sá et al., 2023). Anxiety was a prominent emotion, as the shift to remote learning and the uncertain course of the pandemic increased feelings of fear. This emotional strain resembles the early stages of Rønnestad and Skovholt’s (2003) model, where anxiety is a key experience for those beginning their journey towards becoming professional counsellors. Amid this anxiety, the need for emotional support became a critical theme. With pandemic restrictions causing physical isolation, traditional ways of seeking emotional support from peers, teachers, and supervisors were limited. Participants described feeling pushed into a phase of ‘not knowing’, which heightened their sense of loneliness and confusion. As shown in the results, emotional support during this vital developmental phase has a significant impact, similar to the emphasis Rønnestad and Skovholt (2003) place on the relational aspects of professional growth. During the COVID-19 pandemic, students showed remarkable resilience despite facing unprecedented hardships (Janse van Rensburg, 2023), with key factors including mindfulness practices, self-efficacy, emotional regulation, and accessing social support systems (Roche et al., 2022). The recurring theme of resilience and a subtle transition from fear to hope and competence, was evident. This suggests that over time, and despite the obstacles, participants began to experience a lessening of the initial distress and a sense of adaptability. This mirrors Rønnestad and Skovholt’s (2003) proposition that the emotional difficulties experienced initially do indeed ameliorate as individuals progress along their developmental trajectory.

Second, there is the need for structure and exposure in training which was underscored during the pandemic’s unprecedented challenges. A salient concern arising from the participants’ experiences was the palpable lack of communication, guidance, and structured learning experiences during this period. Traditionally, the training framework for applied master’s programmes in psychology is built on a pedagogy that emphasises direct exposure to therapeutic environments and client interactions. This experiential approach ensures that students are not only exposed to theoretical knowledge but also have application opportunities. Findings also identified and exposed the communication gaps between department and student, which were further widened by the lack of structured guidance on how to navigate the new learning landscape. This lack of structure made it challenging for them to distinguish between the roles they play as students, the roles they play as therapists-in-training, and their roles in the confines of their homes. The remote learning environment, although essential for safety reasons, could not replicate the richness of engagements such as guided exposures, face-to-face supervision, interaction with clients, observing senior clinicians, and participating in real-time therapy sessions.

And third, there is the developmental nature in becoming a professional. The developmental trajectory from student to professional is a complex and multifaceted journey that is intertwined with personal growth, academic rigour, and the acquisition of practical skills. A cornerstone of this developmental trajectory is the interaction with various stakeholders within the academic and clinical ecosystem. These interactions serve as a crucible for learning, fostering the amalgamation of theoretical knowledge with practical insights. The emphasis on in-person communication, as corroborated by participants, underscores the importance of these interpersonal relationships. Rønnestad and Skovholt (2003) elucidate that interpersonal sources of influence drive professional growth more profoundly than ‘impersonal’ sources. The pivot to remote learning modes during the pandemic however, significantly limited these growth-propelling interactions. The lack of face-to-face dialogues affected the depth of discussions, nuanced feedback, and influenced the symbiotic relationship that often emerges between the teacher and the student.

Also, access to resources, both material and intellectual, plays a pivotal role in shaping a student’s professional identity. In a pre-pandemic environment, this access was facilitated through libraries, seminars, workshops, and interactive sessions. The pandemic-induced limitations on physical movement and gatherings led to a palpable void in this domain. While digital platforms attempted to bridge this gap, they often fell short in replicating the ambiance and spontaneity of physical spaces dedicated to learning.

Conversely, this isolation and lack of access spotlighted an essential trait that every aspiring psychologist should possess – resilience (Shafi et al., 2023). Confronted with unforeseen disruptions, participants had to navigate a landscape marred by ambiguity and uncertainty. This transformation is reminiscent of the theme of Rønnestad and Skovholt’s (2003) model, which elaborates on the reciprocal relationship between personal life experiences and professional development. In this context, the pandemic emerged as a significant life event that sculpted the participants’ professional metamorphosis. Rønnestad and Skovholt’s (2003) theme of commitment to lifelong learning, might have been directly tested in the face of the pandemic as students grappled with the unfamiliar terrain of virtual learning environments and navigated new and unknown ethical situations. Given the abrupt shift to online learning and the necessary self-reliance, the usual trajectory of cognitive map alteration may have been disrupted. Furthermore, the shift to online learning and counselling might have amplified the role of impersonal sources, such as reading relevant books or journals and attending online courses or seminars. This change could have affected the usual interpersonal-driven learning preference, necessitating the exploration of alternative learning modalities and their effectiveness.

Implications and practical contributions

Moving forward in the training of psychologists, there are implications for the future of educational strategies and support systems within master’s programmes in applied psychology. The pandemic, as supported by this study’s findings, has taught us many lessons. First, the necessity for institutions to create support systems that holistically address students’ psychological and academic needs, especially during (but not limited to) times of crisis. This support should ideally encompass regular mental health check-ins, accessible counselling services, and proactive communication from educational authorities, contributing to a nurturing and enabling educational environment (Ahmed & Opoku, 2022; Arikawe et al., 2024; Naidoo & Cartwright, 2022).

Another significant implication is the implementation of blended learning models. Blended learning could offer a flexible and resilient solution that preserves the benefits of face-to-face interaction while harnessing the convenience and accessibility of online platforms (Khan et al., 2021; Loots et al., 2023). Some studies suggest that online learning may even increase counselling students’ self-efficacy and motivation compared with traditional face-to-face models (Hanley & Wyatt, 2021; Mason et al., 2022; Watson, 2012).

Third, the results accentuate the necessity for educational institutions to commit to transparent and pre-emptive communication strategies. This would enable students and staff to have a pre-established roadmap to inform their decisions and actions, consequently mitigating the turmoil that typically accompanies unforeseen changes in instructional approaches and training (Allendoerfer, 2022). In sum, this research highlights the necessity of student-centred educational models that are sensitively attuned to students’ academic and emotional needs, particularly within unpredictable contexts. This article’s contribution extends beyond the implications indicated above as it also highlights the relevance of Rønnestad and Skovholt’s (2003) professional development themes and stages, even in extraordinary and unexpected contexts. This relevance suggests the potential and intentional introduction of this theory into the professional development component of master’s training.

Trustworthiness and ethical considerations

This study was supported by the basic principles of trustworthiness, enhancing the credibility, confirmability, dependability, and transferability as defined by Lincoln and Guba (1985). A triangulation process was established, which entailed the transcription of interviews and the integration of theoretical viewpoints and the researcher’s perspectives (Shenton, 2004). The study’s conclusions were rooted in the participants’ responses while avoiding personal interests and possible researcher bias. All modifications were diligently recorded, including changes to the initial research plan. Ethical approval from the GENERAL/HUMAN RESEARCH ETHICS COMMITTEE (GHREC) of the University of the Free State (South Africa) was secured before initiating the data collection process. The ethical clearance number is UFS-HSD2022/1458/22. Upon receiving the study information leaflet, informed consent was obtained. Consent was granted based on receiving clear information about the study, making a voluntary decision, the participants’ competency to consent, and signed documentation.

To ensure confidentiality and anonymity, pseudonyms were assigned to the participants, and care was taken to omit any personally identifiable information from the manuscript to be published. Furthermore, all data were securely stored. Participation was optional, and participants may have withdrawn at any given time.

Conclusion, limitations and recommendations

The findings of the current study indicated various challenges that impeded experiential learning and affected professional development. Despite this, students displayed resilience, adaptability, and skill acquisition, reinforcing Ronnestad and Skovholt’s model’s proposition that personal life events influence professional development.

Limitations of the study include the specific regional focus (South Africa), suggesting the need for future research to consider different geographical contexts and possibly conduct longitudinal studies assessing long-term impacts. We acknowledge that the small sample size may present notable limitations, particularly regarding the representativeness and generalisability of findings, and that these data may not capture the diversity of perspectives within the broader population. However, these limitations were mitigated through methodological rigour, such as the careful selection of participants to ensure diversity and achieving richness and depth in the findings. Future research can draw upon these results to further identify which challenges tertiary institutions faced at this time and how they can overcome them.

In conclusion, this study illuminates the complex influence of the pandemic on the training and development of psychology students, highlighting both challenges and growth. These findings encourage refinements to training frameworks, featuring the need for resilient educational ecosystems that can address future adversities.

Footnotes

ORCID iD

Lindi Nel

Author contributions

Both authors were involved in the design of the study as well as the analysis and interpretation of the data. Author 1 was mainly responsible for collecting the data. Both authors meet the criteria for authorship and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data availability statement

The data set associated with this manuscript can be requested from the corresponding author.

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Student training experiences within applied master’s in psychology programmes in South Africa during the COVID-19 pandemic: a professional development perspective