Alcohol protective behavioral strategies (PBS) are commonly conceptualized with a three-factor model, as used in the Protective Behavioral Strategies Scale-20 (PBSS-20). However, inconsistencies exist between factors and drinking outcomes. The current study used factor analysis to test a two-factor structure directly via controlled consumption (Direct/CC) and indirectly via harm reduction (Indirect/HR) using the PBSS-20 among a combined sample of n = 4,883 drinkers. Both the two- and three-factor structures evince similar model fit. A two-factor model yielded more concise PBS measurement. Negative associations were observed with consumption (Direct/CC PBS) and problems (Indirect/HR). A condensed, eight-item, two-factor model accounted for less variance in alcohol consumption, however more variance in alcohol-related problems. A more consistent framework for understanding the impact of PBS on alcohol-related outcomes is provided.
AlstonJ. M.ChalfantJ. A. (1991). Unstable models from incorrect forms. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 73(4), 1171–1181. https://doi.org/10.2307/1242445
2.
BalasE. A.BorenS. A. (2000). Managing clinical knowledge for health care improvement. Yearbook of Medical Informatics, 9(1), 65–70. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0038-1637943
3.
BentonS. L.SchmidtJ. L.NewtonF. B.ShinK.BentonS. A.NewtonD. W. (2004). College student protective strategies and drinking consequences. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 65(1), 115–121. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsa.2004.65.115
4.
BlanchardB. E.StevensA.CannA. T.LittlefieldA. K. (2019). Regulate yourself: Emotion regulation and protective behavioral strategies in substance use behaviors. Addictive Behaviors, 92, 95–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.12.020
5.
BlanchardB. E.StevensA. K.LittlefieldA. K. (2018). Protective behavioral strategies and alcohol consumption: Are all strategies equal?Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 36(1), 72–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/07347324.2017.1387034
6.
BoltsO. L.DavisS. R.DouglassM. A.Smith-LeCavalierK. N.PrinceM. A. (2022). Perceived helpfulness of alcohol protective behavioral strategies and consequence severity: A person-centered analysis. Journal of American College Health, ahead-of-print(ahead-of-print), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2022.2054662
7.
BordenL. A.MartensM. P.McBrideM. A.ShelineK. T.BlochK. K.DudeK. (2011). The role of college Students’ use of protective behavioral strategies in the relation between binge drinking and alcohol-related problems. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 25(2), 346–351. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022678
8.
BraitmanA. L.StamatesA.ColangeloM.EhlkeS. J.OrtmanJ.HeronK. E.CareyK. B. (2023). Criterion validity of protective behavioral strategies for alcohol consumption among college students: Comparison across two measures. Substance use & Misuse, 58(1), 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2022.2125275
9.
CareyK. B.TempchinJ.DiBelloA. M.MastroleoN. R. (2022). Use of protective behavioral strategies and blackout experience among mandated college students. Addictive Behaviors, 132, 107340–107340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2022.107340
10.
CollinsR. L.ParksG. A.MarlattG. A. (1985). Social determinants of alcohol consumption: The effects of social interaction and model status on the self-administration of alcohol. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53(2), 189–200. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.53.2.189
11.
De LeonA. N.DvorakR. D.SmallmanR.ArthurK.PierceyC. (2022). Using counterfactual thinking theory to change alcohol protective behavioural strategy use intentions. British Journal of Health Psychology, 27(1), 159–178. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12535
12.
De LeonA. N.PetersonR.LearyA. V.BurrE. K.CoraJ. L.DvorakR. D. (2022). Protective behavioral strategies as a protective factor against suicidal ideation among college student drinkers. Journal of American College Health, ahead-of-print(ahead-of-print), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2022.2063023
13.
DeMartiniK. S.PalmerR. S.LeemanR. F.CorbinW. R.TollB. A.FucitoL. M.O'MalleyS. S. (2013). Drinking less and drinking smarter: Direct and indirect protective strategies in young adults. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 27(3), 615–626. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030475
14.
Fernandez-CalderonF.Gonzalez-PonceB. M.Diaz-BataneroC.Lozano-RojasO. M. (2021). Predictive utility of protective behavioral strategies for alcohol-related outcomes in a community sample of young adults. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 82(4), 476–485. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2021.82.476
15.
FriedmanL.WallM. (2005). Graphical views of suppression and multicollinearity in multiple linear regression. The American Statistician, 59(2), 127–136. https://doi.org/10.1198/000313005X41337
16.
GonzalezV. M.BravoA. J.CrouchM. C. (2019). Endorsement of the “firewater myth” affects the use of protective behavioral strategies among American Indian and Alaska native students. Addictive Behaviors, 93, 78–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.01.027
17.
GorsuchR. L. (2015). Factor analysis (Classic edition. ed.). Routledge.
18.
GrazioliV. S.StuderJ.LarimerM. E.LewisM. A.MarmetS.LemoineM.DaeppenJ. B.GmelG. (2019). Protective behavioral strategies scale-20: Psychometric properties of a French and German version among young males in Switzerland. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 28(3), e1777–n/a. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.1777
19.
HooverS. M.JordanH. R.MohnR. S.LuiP. P.MadsonM. B. (2023). Assessing reasons for limiting heavy drinking among college students: Development and preliminary analysis. Journal of Substance use, ahead-of-print(ahead-of-print), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/14659891.2023.2173099
20.
JongenelisM. I.PettigrewS.PrattI. S.ChikritzhsT.SlevinT.LiangW. (2016). Predictors and outcomes of Drinkers’ use of protective behavioral strategies. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 30(6), 639–647. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000194
21.
JordanH. R.MadsonM. B.MohnR. S.DahlenE. R.NicholsonB. C.HooverS. M. (2023). Posttraumatic stress symptoms and alcohol outcomes for at-risk college students: The mediating role of drinking motives and protective behavioral strategies. Drugs : Education, Prevention & Policy, 30(2), 185–195. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687637.2021.2012128
22.
JordanH. R.Villarosa-HurlockerM. C.AshleyA. L.MadsonM. B. (2018). Protective behavioral strategies and hazardous drinking among college students: The moderating role of psychological distress. Journal of Drug Education, 48(1–2), 3–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047237918800505
23.
KahlerC. W.StrongD. R.ReadJ. P. (2005). Toward efficient and comprehensive measurement of the alcohol problems continuum in college students: The brief young adult alcohol consequences questionnaire. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 29(7), 1180–1189. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ALC.0000171940.95813.A5
24.
LearyA.DvorakR. D.Troop-GordonW.BlantonH.PetersonR.KramerM. P.De LeonA. N.MagriT. (2022). Test of a deviance regulation theory intervention among first-year college student drinkers: Differential effects via frequency and quantity norms. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 36(6), 619–634. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000777
25.
LeemanR. F.DeMartiniK. S.GueorguievaR.NogueiraC.CorbinW. R.NeighborsC.O'MalleyS. S. (2016). Randomized controlled trial of a very brief, multicomponent web-based alcohol intervention for undergraduates with a focus on protective behavioral strategies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 84(11), 1008–1015. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000132
26.
LemoineP. G.WhitleyR. B.JordanH. R.MadsonM. B. (2020). College alcohol beliefs and alcohol outcomes: The mediating effects of alcohol protective behavioral strategies. Substance use & Misuse, 55(14), 2389–2394. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2020.1817085
27.
LoobyA.BravoA. J.KilweinT. M.ZimmermanL.PearsonM. R. (2019). Alcohol-related protective behavioral strategies as a mediator of the relationship between drinking motives and risky sexual behaviors. Addictive Behaviors, 93, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.01.009
28.
MadsonM. B.ArnauR. C.LambertS. J. (2013). Development and psychometric evaluation of the revised protective behavioral strategies scale. Psychological Assessment, 25(2), 556–567. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031788
29.
MartensM. P.FerrierA. G.SheehyM. J.CorbettK.AndersonD. A.SimmonsA. (2005). Development of the protective behavioral strategies survey. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 66(5), 698–705. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsa.2005.66.698
30.
MartensM. P.MartinJ. L.LittlefieldA. K.MurphyJ. G.CiminiM. D. (2011). Changes in protective behavioral strategies and alcohol use among college students. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 118(2), 504–507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.04.020
31.
PalmerR. S.CorbinW. R.CronceJ. M. (2010). Protective strategies: A mediator of risk associated with age of drinking onset. Addictive Behaviors, 35(5), 486–491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2009.12.028
32.
PandeyS.ElliottW. (2010). Suppressor variables in social work research: Ways to identify in multiple regression models. Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research, 1(1), 28–40. https://doi.org/10.5243/jsswr.2010.2
33.
PearsonM. R. (2013). Use of alcohol protective behavioral strategies among college students: A critical review. Clinical Psychology Review, 33(8), 1025–1040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.08.006
34.
PearsonM. R.D'LimaG. M.KelleyM. L. (2013). Daily use of protective behavioral strategies and alcohol-related outcomes among college students. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 27(3), 826–831. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032516
35.
PerezC. M.JordanH. R.NicholsonB. C.MohnR. S.MadsonM. B. (2021). Protective behavioral strategies mediate the relationship between overparenting and alcohol-related consequences among college students. Substance use & Misuse, 56(4), 510–516. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2021.1883658
36.
PerrotteJ. K.MartinJ. L.Piña-WatsonB. (2021). Traditional feminine gender roles, alcohol use, and protective behavioral strategies among Latina college students. Journal of American College Health, 69(6), 644–652. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2019.1705836
37.
PetersonR.DvorakR. D.WoernerJ.LewisM. A. (2021). Internalizing symptoms, alcohol use, and protective behavioral strategies: Associations with regretted sexual experiences of college students. Journal of Affective Disorders, 283, 363–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.01.077
38.
PetersonR.KramerM. P.PintoD.De LeonA. N.LearyA. V.MarinA. A.CoraJ. L.DvorakR. D. (2021). A comprehensive review of measures of protective behavioral strategies across various risk factors and associated PBS-related interventions. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 29(3), 236–250. https://doi.org/10.1037/pha0000498
39.
PilattiA.BravoA. J.MicheliniY.PautassiR. M. (2021). ELSA 2018 Cohort: Protective behavioral strategies as mediators of the relationship between risk factors and alcohol outcomes in argentinean college freshmen. Alcohol and Alcoholism (Oxford), 56(4), 460–469. https://doi.org/10.1093/alcalc/agaa111
40.
RichardsD. K.PuentesR. P.GonzalesR.SmithJ. C.FieldC. A.MoreraO. F. (2018). A psychometric evaluation of the protective behavioral strategies scale-20 among internet samples of adult drinkers. Addictive Behaviors Reports, 8, 71–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2018.08.002
41.
SalesB. D.FolkmanS. (Eds.). (2000). Ethics in research with human participants. American Psychological Association.
42.
SaundersJ. B.AaslandO. G.BaborT. F.De La FuenteJ. R.GrantM. (1993). Development of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT): WHO collaborative project on early detection of persons with harmful alcohol consumption-II. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 88(6), 791–804. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.1993.tb02093.x
43.
SmallmanR.ArthurK. M.DvorakR. D.FieldsS. A. (2023). From if-then to here and now: Using personalized counterfactuals from past negative experiences to reduce future alcohol consequences. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 31(2), 386–396. https://doi.org/10.1037/pha0000568
44.
StanickC.PowellB.HalkoH.DorseyC.WeinerB.LewisC. (2017). Advancing the pragmatic measures construct. Society for Implementation Reserach Collaboration.
45.
ThompsonC. G.KimR. S.AloeA. M.BeckerB. J. (2017). Extracting the variance inflation factor and other multicollinearity diagnostics from typical regression results. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 39(2), 81–90. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973533.2016.1277529
46.
TreloarH.MartensM. P.McCarthyD. M. (2015). The protective behavioral strategies scale-20: Improved content validity of the serious harm reduction subscale. Psychological Assessment, 27(1), 340–346. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000071
47.
YongA. G.PearceS. (2013). A beginner’s guide to factor analysis: Focusing on exploratory factor analysis. Tutorials in Quantitative Methods for Psychology, 9(2), 79–94. https://doi.org/10.20982/TQMP.09.2.P079
