Adjustable bras are well designed to offer optimal support and shaping for the breasts, by employing scientifically determined pressure distribution. The bras are favored for their ability to balance the multidimensional needs of comfort, functionality, and safety. Based on a finite-element model of the body–bra system and orthogonal design, the effect of various factors on the performance of bras was investigated, including Young’s modulus of the shoulder straps and cups, as well as the thickness of soft tissue. The simulation results indicated that as the Young’s modulus of straps and cups increases, the contact pressure at each test point also increases, while the shaping effect decreases. Regression equations were established to quantify the relationships between contact pressure, shaping indicator, and Young’s modulus of the shoulder straps and cups. Furthermore, as the thickness of the soft tissue increases, there is a decreasing trend in contact pressure and stress, and an increasing trend in deformation. This highlights the importance of considering individual anatomical variations when designing bras to ensure a proper fit and optimal support. The study explored a deeper understanding of interaction mechanisms between body and bras, which scientifically guide the optimization of bra design, including style, pattern, and fabric selection, to better meet the needs of diverse body types. In addition, the methodology and findings can inspire and inform the simulation and design of other types of garments, potentially leading to improvements in the fit and functionality of a wide range of clothing items.
McGheeDESteeleJR.Breast biomechanics: What do we really know?Physiology2020;
35: 144–156.
2.
RamzanMB, Imran A, Zaman S, et al.
Design and development of auxetic structures for enhancing ergonomic comfort in women’s intimate apparel (brassiere). J Eng Fibers Fabr2023;
18: 15589250231219760.
3.
McGheeDESteeleJR.Biomechanics of breast support for active women. Exerc Sport Sci Rev2020;
48: 99–109.
4.
McGheeDESteeleJR.Changes to breast structure and function across a woman’s lifespan: Implications for managing and modeling female breast injuries. Clin Biomech2023;
107: 106031.
5.
ColtmanCESteeleJR, andMcGheeDE.Which bra components contribute to incorrect bra fit in women across a range of breast sizes?Cloth Text Res J2018;
36: 78–90.
6.
AbtewMABruniaux PBoussuF, et al.
Development of comfortable and well-fitted bra pattern for customized female soft body armor through 3D design process of adaptive bust on virtual mannequin. Comput Ind2018;
100: 7–20.
7.
BosquetAMuellerCHosoiAE,
Body scan processing, generative design, and multiobjective evaluation of sports bras. Appl Sci2020;
10: 6126.
8.
BrownNSmithJBrasherA, et al.
Breast education for schoolgirls: why, what, when, and how?Breast J2018;
24: 377–382.
9.
ZuoKYWangYRWenHH, et al.
Research progress of the brassiere-chest simulation based on the finite element mechanical model. J Silk2022;
59: 71–80.
10.
WangYJiXFChenP, et al.
The effect of bra design on wearing appearance. Int J Cloth Sci Technol2024;
36: 84–101.
11.
ZhuoWLChengDSWeiQF, et al.
Effect of elastic materials on pressure comfort of tight-fit bra. Appl Mech Mater2011;
79: 221–226.
12.
ColtmanCEMcGheeDESteeleJR.Bra strap orientations and designs to minimise bra strap discomfort and pressure during sport and exercise in women with large breasts. Sports Med2015;
1: 21.
13.
PengH. Study on influencing factors of shaping effect and pressure comfort of non-steel ring moulded cup. PhD Thesis, Soochow University, 2018.
14.
LeeHEomRLeeY,
Analysis on pressure and wearing sensation according to the lower band design of sports brassieres. Fash Text Res J2019;
21: 67–74.
15.
LiuCMiaoFXDongXY, et al.
Enhancing pressure comfort of a bra’s under-band. Text Res J2018;
88: 2250–2257.
16.
KirkWIbrahimSM.Fundamental relationship of fabric extensibility to anthropometric requirements and garment performance. Text Res J1966;
36: 37–47.
17.
MorookaHFukudaRNakahashiM, et al.
Clothing pressure and wear feeling at underbust part on a push-up type brassiere. SEN- GAKKAISHI2005;
61: 55–60.
18.
MakabeHMomotaHMitsunoT, et al.
A study of clothing pressure developed by the brassiere. J Jpn Res Assoc Text End-Uses1991;
32: 416–423.
19.
ShimizuYSasakiKWatanabeK, et al.
Dynamic measurement of clothing pressure on the body in a brassiere. Fiber1993;
49: 57–62.
20.
ZhangHLuHMiaoM.Bra pressure comfort and shaping effect based on breast shape. Wool Text J2017;
45: 41–46.
21.
WangEHChenXN.Influence of underwire on bra pressure distribution. Wool Text J2019;
47: 90–94.
22.
LiXWangJ.Study on the relationship between chest coalescence effect and bra pressure comfort. Knitt Ind2020;
8: 55–58.
23.
PietruskiPPaskalWPaskalAM, et al.
Analysis of the visual perception of female breast aesthetics and symmetry: An eye-tracking study. Plast Reconstr Surg2019;
144: 1257–1266.
24.
ParkJKBaekSHeoCY, et al.
A Novel deep learning-based automatic photometric analysis software for breast aesthetic scoring. Arch Plast Surg2024;
51: 30–35.
25.
TianR. Research on bra pressure comfort based on young female breast shape. Master’s Thesis, Wuhan Textile University, 2023.
26.
ChoiKJunJRyooY, et al.
Digital-based healthy bra top design that promotes the physical activity of new senior women by applying an optimal pressure. Int J Environ Res Public Health2021;
18: 4651.
27.
MaQRZhouJLiJ, et al.
Grey BP neural network model based bra pressure prediction. Knitt Ind2019;
08: 65–68.
28.
LiangRYipJYuW.
Computational modelling methods for sports bra-body interactions. Int J Cloth Sci Technol2020;
32: 921–934.
29.
LiangRYipJYuW, et al.
Numerical simulation of nonlinear material behaviour: Application to sports bra design. Mater Des2019;
183: 108177.
30.
ZhouJWangSJ.Frontier research of underwear in China based on Citespace. Basic Sci J Text Univ2022;
35: 108–116.
31.
ZhangXYeungKWLiY.Numerical simulation of 3D dynamic garment pressure. Text Res J2002;
72: 245–252.
32.
LiYZhangXYeungKW.A 3D biomechanical model for numerical simulation of dynamic mechanical interactions of bra and breast during wear. Fiber2003;
59: 12–21.
33.
YeCLiuRWuXB, et al.
New analytical model and 3D finite element simulation for improved pressure prediction of elastic compression stockings. Mater Des2022;
217: 110634.
34.
LiuHChenDSWeiQF.
A study of the relationship among clothing pressure and garment bust strain and Young’s modulus of fabric, based on a finite element model. Text Res J2011;
81(13): 1307–1319.
35.
ZhangSYickKLChenL, et al.
Finite-element modelling of elastic woven tapes for bra design applications. J Text Inst2020;
111: 1470–1480.
36.
SunYYickKLCaiY, et al.
Finite element analysis on contact pressure and 3D breast deformation for application in women’s bras. Fibers Polym2021;
22: 2910–2921.
37.
WangXYZhongCNieYF, et al.
Anatomical study on breast fixtures. J Zhengzhou Univ Med2005;
40(4): 637–639.
38.
GefenADilmoneyB.Mechanics of the normal woman’s breast. Technol Health Care Off J Eur Soc Eng Med2007;
15: 259.
39.
BrisbineBRSteeleJRMcGheeDE.Breast and torso characteristics of female contact football players: implications for the design of sports bras and breast protection. Ergonomics2020;
63(7): 850–863.
40.
WangYRWangYYZuoKY.Finite-element simulation of pressure profile and 3D deformation of breasts wearing adjustable bras. Text Res J2025. DOI: 10.1177/00405175241311498.
41.
McGheeDESteeleJRTakacsGJ.Bra-breast forces generated in women with large breasts while standing and during treadmill running: Implications for sports bra design. Appl Ergon2013;
44(1): 112–118.
42.
SunYYickKLYuW, et al.
3D bra and human interactive modeling using finite element method for bra design. Comput Aided Des2019;
114: 13–27.
43.
WangLHSuGMCaoG, et al.
Correlation between BMI, WHR, SFT and incidence rate of diabetic nephropathy. China Med Her2017;
14: 77–80.
44.
BoutenCVOomensCWBaaijenFP, et al.
The etiology of pressure ulcers: Skin deep or muscle bound?Arch Phys Med Rehabil2003;
84: 616–619.
45.
ZhangYHWang KHongJ, et al.
Soft tissue stress distribution in hip-legs during sitting. J Xian Jiaotong Univ2008;
42(5): 569–572.
