Growing evidence suggests that contrary to popular belief, schools mostly do not generate achievement gaps in cognitive skills but, rather, reflect the inequalities that already exist. In the case of socioeconomic status, exposure to school often reduces gaps. Surprisingly little is known, however, about whether this pattern extends to gender gaps in cognitive skills. We compare how gender gaps in math and reading change when children are in school versus out (in the summer) among over 900,000 U.S. children. We find that girls learn faster than boys when school is out (in both reading and math), but this advantage is completely eliminated when school is in session. Compared to the family environment, schools act as a relatively standardizing institution, producing more similar gendered patterns in learning.
American Association of University Women. 1992. How Schools Shortchange Girls. New York, NY: Marlowe.
2.
AndersenIda GranReimerDavid. 2019. “Same- Gender Teacher Assignment, Instructional Strategies, and Student Achievement: New Evidence on the Mechanisms Generating Same-Gender Teacher Effects.”Research in Social Stratification and Mobility62:100406. doi:10.1016/j.rssm.2019.05.001.
3.
AutorDavidFiglioDavidKarbownikKrzysztofRothJeffreyWassermanMelanie. 2016. “School Quality and the Gender Gap in Educational Achievement.”American Economic Review106:289–95.
4.
BertrandMariannePanJessica. 2013. “The Trouble with Boys: Social Influences and the Gender Gap in Disruptive Behavior.”American Economic Journal: Applied Economics5(1):32–64.
5.
BielbyRobPosseltJulie ReneeJaquetteOzanBastedoMichael N.2014. “Why Are Women Underrepresented in Elite Colleges and Universities? A Non-linear Decomposition Analysis.”Research in Higher Education55(8):735–60.
6.
BuchmannClaudiaDiPreteThomas A.McDanielAnne. 2008. “Gender Inequalities in Education.”Annual Review of Sociology34(1):319–37.
7.
BumpusM. F.CrouterA. C.McHaleS.2001. “Parental Autonomy Granting during Adolescence: Exploring Gender Differences in Context.”Developmental Psychology37(2):163–73.
8.
CarterR. S.WojtkiewiczR. A.2000. “Parental Involvement with Adolescents’ Education: Do Daughters or Sons Get More Help?”Adolescence35(137):29–44.
9.
ChettyRajHendrenNathanielKatzLawrence F.2016. “The Effects of Exposure to Better Neighborhoods on Children: New Evidence from the Moving to Opportunity Experiment.”American Economic Review106(4):855–902.
10.
CoenenJohanVan KlaverenChris. 2016. “Better Test Scores with a Same-Gender Teacher?”European Sociological Review32(3):452–64.
11.
ColemanJames Samuel. 1961. The Adolescent Society: The Social Life of the Teenager and Its Impact on Education. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
12.
CorrellShelley J.2001. “Gender and the Career Choice Process: The Role of Biased Self-Assessments.”American Journal of Sociology10(6):1691–730.
13.
DeeThomas S.2007. “Teachers and the Gender Gaps in Student Achievement.”Journal of Human Resources42(3):528–54.
14.
DiPreteThomas A.BuchmannClaudia. 2013. The Rise of Women: The Growing Gender Gap in Education and What It Means for American Schools. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
15.
DowneyDouglas B.CondronDennis J.2016. “Fifty Years Since the Coleman Report: Rethinking the Relationship between Schools and Inequality.”Sociology of Education89(3):207–20.
16.
DowneyDouglas B.QuinnDavidAlcarazMelissa. 2019. “The Distribution of School Quality.”Sociology of Education92(4):386–403.
17.
DowneyDouglas B.von HippelPaul T.BrohBeckett A.2004. “Are Schools the Great Equalizer? Cognitive Inequality during the Summer Months and the School Year.”American Sociological Review69(5):613–35.
18.
DowneyDouglas B.von HippelPaul T.HughesMelanie. 2008. “Are ‘Failing’ Schools Really Failing? Using Seasonal Comparisons to Evaluate School Effectiveness.”Sociology of Education81(3):242–70.
19.
DuffettAnnFarkasSteveLovelessTom. 2008. High-Achieving Students in the Era of No Child Left Behind. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.
20.
DumaisSusan A.2002. “Cultural Capital, Gender, and School Success: The Role of Habitus.”Sociology of Education75(1):44–68.
21.
EnglandPaula. 2010. “The Gender Revolution.”Gender & Society24(2):149–66.
22.
EntwisleDoris R.AlexanderKarl L.1992. “Summer Setback: Race, Poverty, School Composition, and Mathematics Achievement in the First Two Years of School.”American Sociological Review57(1):72–84.
23.
EntwisleDoris R.AlexanderKarl L.OlsonLinda Steffel. 1994. “The Gender Gap in Math: Its Possible Origins in Neighborhood Effects.”American Sociological Review59(6):822–838.
24.
EstradaEduardoFerrerEmilio. 2020. “Studying Developmental Processes in Accelerated Cohort-Sequential Designs with Discrete- and Continuous- Time Latent Change Score Models.”Psychological Methods24(6):708–34.
25.
FengJingSpenceIanPrattJay. 2007. “Playing an Action Video Game Reduces Gender Differences in Spatial Cognition.”Pschological Science18(10):850–55.
26.
FreeseJeremyPetersonDavid. 2017. “Replication in Social Science.”Annual Review of Sociology43:147–65.
27.
FurnhamAdrianReevesEmmaBudhaniSalima. 2002. “Parents Think Their Sons Are Brighter than Their Daughters: Sex Differences in Parental Self- Estimations and Estimations of Their Children’s Multiple Intelligences.”Journal of Genetic Psychology163(1):24–39.
28.
HeynsBarbara. 1978. Summer Learning and the Effects of Schooling. New York, NY: Academic Press.
29.
HoA. D.2009. “A Nonparametric Framework for Comparing Trends and Gaps across Tests.”Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics34(2):201–28.
30.
Andrew D.HoHaertelEdward H.2006. Metric- Free Measures of Test Score Trends and Gaps with Policy-Relevant Examples. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University.
31.
HydeJanet Shibley. 2014. “Gender Similarities and Differences.”Annual Review of Psychology65(1):373–98.
32.
JenningsJennifer L.DiPreteThomas A.2010. “Teacher Effects on Social and Behavioral Skills in Early Elementary School.”Sociology of Education83(2):135–59.
33.
KuhfeldMegan. 2019. “Surprising New Results on Summer Learning Loss.”Phi Delta Kappan101(1):25–29. doi:10.1177/0031721719871560.
34.
LegewieJoschaDiPreteThomas A.2012. “School Context and the Gender Gap in Educational Achievement.”American Sociological Review77(3):463–85.
35.
LudwigJ.MillerD. L.2007. “Does Head Start Improve Children’s Life Chances? Evidence from a Regression Discontinuity Design.”The Quarterly Journal of Economics122(1):159–208.
36.
MacLeodJay. 2008. Ain’t No Makin’ It: Aspirations and Attainment in a Low-Income Neighborhood. 3rd ed.Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
37.
MartinKarin A.1998. “Becoming a Gendered Body: Practices of Preschools.”American Sociological Review63(4):494–511.
38.
MorrisEdward W.2012. Learning the Hard Way: Masculinity, Place, and the Gender Gap in Education. Rutgers, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
39.
MustoMichela. 2019. “Brilliant or Bad: The Gendered Social Construction of Exceptionalism in Early Adolescence.”American Sociological Review84(3):369–93.
40.
NeugebauerMartinHelbigMarcelLandmannAndreas. 2011. “Unmasking the Myth of the Same-Sex Teacher Advantage.”European Sociological Review27(5):669–89.
41.
OECD. 2015. The ABC of Gender Equality in Education: Aptitude, Behavior, Confidence, PISA. Paris: OECD.
42.
PaxtonPamelaHughesMelanie M.2016. Women, Politics, and Power: A Global Perspective. Washington, DC: CQ Press.
43.
PennerAndrew M.ParetMarcel. 2008. “Gender Differences in Mathematics Achievement: Exploring the Early Grades and the Extremes.”Social Science Research37(1):239–53.
44.
QuadlinNatasha. 2018. “The Mark of a Woman’s Record: Gender and Academic Performance in Hiring.”American Sociological Review83(2):331–60.
45.
RaudenbushStephen W.BrykAnthony S.2002. Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
46.
RaudenbushStephen W.BrykAnthony S.CheongY. F.CongdonR.2011. HLM 7 for Windows. Lincolnwood, IL: Scientific Software International, Inc.
47.
RaudenbushStephen W.ChanWing-Shing. 1992. “Growth Curve Analysis in Accelerated Longitudinal Designs.”Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency29:387–411.
48.
RidgewayCecilia L.2011. Framed by Gender: How Gender Inequality Persists in the Modern World. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
49.
Robinson-CimpianJoseph P.LubienskiSarah TheuleGanleyColleen M.Copur-GencturkYasemin. 2014. “Teachers’ Perceptions of Students’ Mathematics Proficiency May Exacerbate Early Gender Gaps in Achievement.”Developmental Psychology50(4):1262–81.
50.
RobinsonJoseph PaulLubienskiSarah Theule. 2011. “The Development of Gender Achievement Gaps in Mathematics and Reading during Elementary and Middle School: Examining Direct Cognitive Assessments and Teacher Ratings.”American Educational Research Journal48(2):268–302.
51.
RosinHanna. 2012. The End of Men: And the Rise of Women. New York, NY: Penguin.
52.
RuryJohn L.2008. Education and Social Change: Contours in the History of American Schooling. New York, NY: Routledge.
53.
SadkerDavidSadkerMyraZittlemanKaren R.2009. Still Failing at Fairness: How Gender Bias Cheats Girls and Boys in School and What We Can Do about It. New York, NY: Scribner.
54.
SadkerMyraSadkerDavid. 1994. Failing at Fairness: How America’s Schools Cheat Girls. New York, NY: C. Scribner’s Sons.
55.
SalikutlukZerrinHeyneStefanie. 2017. “Do Gender Roles and Norms Affect Performance in Maths? The Impact of Adolescents’ and Their Peers’ Gender Conceptions on Maths Grades.”European Sociological Review33(3):368–81.
56.
SimpkinsSandra D.Davis-KeanPamela E.EcclesJacquelynne S.2005. “Parents’ Socializing Behavior and Children’s Participation in Math, Science, and Computer out-of-School Activities.”Applied Developmental Science9(1):14–30.
57.
SnyderThomas D.de BreyCristobalDillowSally A.2019. Digest of Education Statistics, 2017. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
Stephens-DavidowitzSeth. 2017. Everybody Lies: Big Data, New Data, and What the Internet Can Tell Us about Who We Really Are. New York, NY: Dey Street Books.
60.
TerleckiMelissa S.NewcombeNora S.2005. “How Important Is the Digital Divide? The Relation of Computer and Videogame Usage to Gender Differences in Mental Rotation Ability.”Sex Roles53:533–51.
61.
ThorneBarrie. 1993. Gender Play: Girls and Boys in School (Studies of Great Texts in Science) (9780813519234): Thorne, Barrie: Books. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
62.
ThumYeow Meng. 2018. “The Vertical, Interval Scale Assumption of a Computerized Adaptive Test: Evidence from Additive Conjoint Measurement.” Paper presented at the ITC Meetings, Montreal, Canada.
63.
TyrePeg. 2008. The Trouble with Boys: A Surprising Report Card on Our Sons, Their Problems at School, and What Parents and Educatators Must Do. New York, NY: Three Rivers Press.
64.
van HekMargrietKraaykampGerbertPelzerBen. 2018. “Do Schools Affect Girls’ and Boys’ Reading Performance Differently? A Multilevel Study on the Gendered Effects of School Resources and School Practices.”School Effectiveness and School Improvement29(1):1–21.
65.
von HippelPaulHamrockCaitlin. 2019. “Do Test Score Gaps Grow before, during, or between the School Years? Measurement Artifacts and What We Can Know in Spite of Them.”Sociological Science6(3):43–80.
66.
von HippelPaul T.WorkmanJosephDowneyDouglas B.2018. “Inequality in Reading and Math Skills Forms Mainly before Kindergarten: A Replication, and Partial Correction, of ‘Are Schools the Great Equalizer?’”Sociology of Education9(4):323–57.
67.
VoyerDanielVoyer SusanD. 2014. “Gender Differences in Scholastic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis.”Psychological Bulletin140(4):1174–1204.
68.
WalbergHerbert J.1984. “Families as Partners in Educational Productivity.”Phi Delta Kappan65(6):397–400.
69.
WightVanessa R.PriceJosephBianchiSuzanne M.HuntBijou R.2009. “The Time Use of Teenagers.”Social Science Research38(4):792–809.
70.
WillisPaul E.1977. Learning to Labor: How Working Class Kids Get Working Class Jobs. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
71.
WorthenMeredith G.2011. “Gender Differences in Parent-Child Bonding: Implications for Understanding the Gender Gap in Delinquency.”Journal of Crime and Justice34(1):3–23.
72.
XuJun. 2016. “Patriarchy, Gendered Spheres, or Evolutionary Adaptation? A Cross-National Examination of Adolescent Boys and Girls Access to Home Resources.”Chinese Sociological Review48(3):209–47.
73.
YoonAimee J.MerryJoseph J.2018. “Understanding the Role of Schools in the Asian-White Gap: A Seasonal Comparison Approach.”Race Ethnicity and Education21(5):680–700.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
