The purpose of this study is to examine how belief in divine support is associated with sense of mattering, and how this association is contingent upon various images of God including authoritative, benevolent, critical, and distant God. Employing OLS regression analyses with data from the 2017 Baylor Religion Survey (n = 1,375), this study demonstrates that belief in divine support is positively associated with sense of mattering. Yet, a distant God image moderates this association. Specifically, the positive association between belief in divine support and sense of mattering is weaker for individuals who endorse images of God as distant. The findings suggest that while the sense of divine support has beneficial effects on mattering, these psychological benefits are smaller for those who see God as distant. This study contributes to the literature on religion and mattering by underscoring the importance of divine beliefs and their differential effects based on one’s ideas about the nature of God.
AndreNickUpenieksLauraBonhagRebecca. 2023. “Does Religious Service Attendance Condition the Link Between Relationship Status and Mattering to Others? Evidence From the United States During the COVID-19 Pandemic.”Review of Religious Research65(3):344–73.
2.
BakerJoseph O.SmithBuster G.2015. American Secularism: Cultural Contours of Nonreligious Belief Systems. New York, NY: NYU Press.
3.
BergerPeter L.1969. The Sacred Canopy: Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion. New York, NY: Anchor Books.
4.
BonhagRebeccaFroesePaul. 2022. “Sources of Mattering for Women and Men: Gender Differences and Similarities in Feelings of Social Significance.”Sociological Perspectives65(4):748–67.
5.
BonhagRebeccaUpenieksLaura. 2021. “Mattering to God and to the Congregation: Gendered Effects in Mattering as a Mechanism Between Religiosity and Mental Health.”Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion60(4):890–913.
6.
BonhagRebeccaUpenieksLaura. 2024. “Varying Beliefs in God and the Self-Concepts of Mattering and Dignity in a US Sample.”Review of Religious Research. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/0034673X24126820.
7.
BradshawMattEllisonChristopher G.2010. “Financial Hardship and Psychological Distress: Exploring the Buffering Effects of Religion.”Social Science & Medicine71(1):196–204.
8.
BradshawMattEllisonChristopher G.FlannellyKevin J.2008. “Prayer, God Imagery, and Symptoms of Psychopathology.”Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion47(4):644–59.
9.
BradshawMattEllisonChristopher G.MarcumJack P.2010. “Attachment to God, Images of God, and Psychological Distress in a Nationwide Sample of Presbyterians.”The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion20(2):130–47.
10.
BradshawMattKentBlake VictorHendersonW. MatthewSetarAnna Catherine. 2019. “Attachment to God and Social Trust.”Sociological Perspectives62(6):1001–1021.
11.
BradshawMattKentBlake VictorWitvlietCharlotte vanOyenJohnsonByronJangSung JoonLemanJoseph. 2022. “Perceptions of Accountability to God and Psychological Well-Being Among US Adults.”Journal of Religion and Health61:327–52.
12.
CowdenRichard G.PargamentKenneth I.WilkinsonRenae. 2024. “Divine Struggles and Whole Person Functioning: A 9-Year Longitudinal Study of Middle-Aged U.S. Adults.”Psychology & Health. Advance online publication. doi:10.1080/08870446.2024.2309162.
13.
CreemersDaan H. M.ScholteRon H. J.EngelsRutger C. M. E.PrinsteinMitchell J.WiersReinout W.2012. “Implicit and Explicit Self-Esteem as Concurrent Predictors of Suicidal Ideation, Depressive Symptoms, and Loneliness.”Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry43(1):638–46.
14.
DavisEdward B.GranqvistPehrSharpCarissa. 2021. “Theistic Relational Spirituality: Development, Dynamics, Health, and transformation.”Psychology of Religion and Spirituality13(4):401–415.
15.
DemirMelikşahÖzenAyçaDoğanAysunBilykNicholasTyrellFanita. 2011. “I Matter to My Friend, Therefore I Am Happy: Friendship, Mattering, and Happiness.”Journal of Happiness Studies12(6):983–1005.
16.
ElliottGregory C.ColangeloMelissaGellesRichard J.2005. “Mattering and Suicide Ideation: Establishing and Elaborating a Relationship.”Social Psychology Quarterly68(3):223–38.
17.
ElliottGregoryKaoSuzanneGrantAnn-Marie. 2004. “Mattering: Empirical Validation of a Social-Psychological Concept.”Self and Identity3(4):339–54.
18.
EllisonChristopher G.LeeJinwoo. 2010. “Spiritual Struggles and Psychological Well-Being: Is There a Dark Side of Religion?”Social Indicators Research98:501–517.
19.
ExlineJulie J.GrubbsJoshua B.HomolkaSteffany J.2015. “Seeing God as Cruel or Distant: Links With Divine Struggles Involving Anger, Doubt, and Fear of God’s Disapproval.”The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion25(1):29–41.
20.
ExlineJulie J.ParkCrystal L.SmythJoshua M.CareyMichael P.2011. “Anger Toward God: Social-Cognitive Predictors, Prevalence, and Links With Adjustment to Bereavement and Cancer.”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology100:129–48.
21.
FestingerLeon. 1957. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Redwood City, CA: Stanford University Press.
22.
FlettGordon L.GoldsteinAbby L.PechenkovIngrid G.NeponTarynWekerleChristine. 2016. “Antecedents, Correlates, and Consequences of Feeling Like You Don’t Matter: Associations With Maltreatment, Loneliness, Social Anxiety, and the Five-Factor Model.”Personality and Individual Differences92:52–6.
23.
FranckErikDe RaedtRudiDereuMiekeVan den AbbeeleDirk, 2007. “Implicit and Explicit Self-Esteem in Currently Depressed Individuals With and Without Suicidal Ideation.”Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry38:75–5.
24.
FroesePaulBaderChristopher D.2010. America’s Four Gods: What We Say About God-and What That Says About Us. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
25.
GawronskiBertramBodenhausenGalen V.2006. “Associative and Propositional Processes in Evaluation: An Integrative Review of Implicit and Explicit Attitude Change.”Psychological Bulletin132(5):692–731.
26.
GrubbsJoshua B.WiltJoshuaStaunerNicholasExlineJuliePargamentKenneth I.2016. “Self, Struggle, and Soul: Linking Personality, Self-Concept, and Religious/Spiritual Struggle.”Personality and Individual Differences101:144–52.
27.
HartLuke C.PostonJohn M.WangDavid C.2024. “God Image as a Moderator of God Concept’s Relation to Shame, Depression, and Existential Well-Being Among Seminarians.”Psychology of Religion and Spirituality16(2):240–50.
28.
IdlerEllen L.KaslStanislav V.1997. “Religion Among Disabled and Nondisabled Persons I: Cross-Sectional Patterns in Health Practices, Social Activities, and Well-Being Ellen.”The Journals of Gerontology: Series B 52B(6):S294–S305.
29.
JamesWilliam. [1902] 1999. The Varieties of Religious Experience. New York, NY: Modern Library.
30.
JangSung JoonHaysJoshuaJohnsonByron R.HallettMichaelDuweGrant. 2018. “‘Four Gods’ in Maximum Security Prison: Images of God, Religiousness, and Worldviews Among Inmates.”Review of Religious Research60:331–65.
31.
KahnemanDaniel. 2011. Thinking, Fast and Slow. New York, NY: Macmillan.
32.
KawamuraSayakaBrownSusan L.2010. “Mattering and Wives’ Perceived Fairness of the Division of Household Labor.”Social Science Research39(6):976–86.
33.
KentBlake V.BradshawMattUeckerJeremy E.2018. “Forgiveness, Attachment to God, and Mental Health Outcomes in Older U.S. Adults: A Longitudinal Study.”Research on Aging40(5):456–79.
34.
KirkpatrickLee A.2005. Attachment, Evolution, and the Psychology of Religion. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
35.
KrauseNealIronsonGail. 2019. “Religious Involvement, God Images, and Life Satisfaction.”Mental Health, Religion & Culture22(1):41–55.
36.
LeeMatthew T.PolomaMargaret M.PostStephen G.2013. The Heart of Religion: Spiritual Empowerment, Benevolence, and the Experience of God’s Love. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
37.
LeeuwisFranca H.KootHans M.CreemersDaan H. M.van LierPol A. C.2015. “Implicit and Explicit Self-Esteem Discrepancies, Victimization and the Development of Late Childhood Internalizing Problems.”Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology43:909–919.
38.
LewisRobynTaylorJohn. 2009. “The Social Significance of Religious Resources in the Prediction of Mattering to Others: African American and White Contrasts.”Sociological Spectrum29:273–94.
39.
LiuYinglinFroesePaul. 2020. “Faith and Agency: The Relationships Between Sense of Control, Socioeconomic Status, and Beliefs About God.”Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion59(2):311–26.
40.
MannheimerAndrewHillTerrence D.2015. “Deviating From Religious Norms and the Mental Health of Conservative Protestants.”Journal of Religion and Health54:1826–38.
41.
McEwenBruce S.1998. “Protective and Damaging Effects of Stress Mediators.”New England Journal of Medicine338(3):171–79.
PhillipsRussell E. IIIPargamentKenneth I.LynnQuinten K.CrossleyCraig D.2004. “Self-Directing Religious Coping: A Deistic God, Abandoning God, or No God at All?”Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion43(3):409–418.
46.
PirutinskyStevenCarpSeanRosmarinDavid H.2017. “A Paradigm to Assess Implicit Attitudes Towards God: The Positive/Negative God Associations Task.”Journal of Religion and Health56:305–319.
47.
PirutinskyStevenCherniakAaron D.RosmarinDavid H.2020. “Implicit and Explicit Attitudes Towards God and Life Satisfaction.”Psychology of Religion and Spirituality12(4):387–92.
48.
PirutinskyStevenRosmarinDavid H.2020. “My God, Why Have You Abandoned Me? Sexual Abuse and Attitudes Towards God Among Orthodox Jews.”Mental Health, Religion & Culture23(7):579–90.
49.
PirutinskyStevenSievJedidiahRosmarinDavid H.2015. “Scrupulosity and Implicit and Explicit Beliefs About God.”Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders6:33–8.
50.
PollnerMelvin. 1989. “Divine Relations, Social Relations, and Well-Being.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior30(1):92–104.
51.
RosenbergMorrisMcCulloughB. Claire. 1981. “Mattering: Inferred Significance and Mental Health Among Adolescents.”Research in Community and Mental Health2:163–82.
52.
SchiemanScott. 2010. “Socioeconomic Status and Beliefs About God’s Influence in Everyday Life.”Sociology of Religion71(1):25–51.
53.
SchiemanScottBiermanAlexEllisonChristopher G.2010. “Religious Involvement, Beliefs About God, and the Sense of Mattering Among Older Adults.”Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion49(3):517–35.
54.
SchiemanScottBiermanAlexUpenieksLaura. 2019. “Beyond “Heartless Conservative” and “Bleeding Heart Liberal” Caricatures: How Religiosity Shapes the Relationship Between Political Orientation and Empathy.”Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion58(2):360–77.
55.
SchiemanScottBiermanAlexUpenieksLauraEllisonChristopher G.2017. “Love Thy Self: How Beliefs About God Shape Self-Esteem.”Review of Religious Research59(3):293–318.
56.
SchiemanScottPlickertGabriele. 2008. “How Knowledge is Power: Explaining the Association Between Education and the Sense of Control.”Social Forces87:153–84.
57.
SchiemanScottPudrovskaTetyanaMilkieMelissa A.2005. “The Sense of Divine Control and the Self-Concept.”Research on Aging27:165–96.
58.
SchiemanScottTaylorJohn. 2001. “Statuses, Roles, and the Sense of Mattering.”Sociological Perspectives44(4):469–84.
59.
SharpShane. 2010. “How Does Prayer Help Manage Emotions?”Social Psychology Quarterly73(4):417–37.
60.
SingerEleanor. 2006. “Special Issue on Nonresponse Bias in Household Surveys.”Public Opinion Quarterly70(5):639–810.
61.
StarkRoneyFinkeRoger. 2000. Acts of Faith: Explaining the Human Side of Religion. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
62.
StarkRodneyGlockCharles Y.1968. American Piety: The Nature of Religious Commitment. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
63.
SteenslandBrianParkJerry Z.RobinsonLynn D.WilcoxW. BradfordWoodberryRobert D.2000. “The Measure of American Religion: Toward Improving the State of the Art.”Social Forces79(1):291–318.
64.
SteenwykSherry A. M.AtkinsDavid C.BedicsJamie D.WhitleyBernard E.Jr.2010. “Images of God as They Relate to Life Satisfaction and Hopelessness.”The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion20(2):85–96.
65.
StiegerStefanBurgerChristoph. 2010. “Implicit and Explicit Self-Esteem in the Context of Internet Addiction.”Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking13(6):681–88.
66.
StroopeSamuelDraperScottWhiteheadAndrew L.2013. “Images of a Loving God and Sense of Meaning in Life.”Social Indicators Research111:25–44.
67.
StulpHenk P.KoelenJurrijnSchep-AkkermanAnnemiekGlasGerrit G.Eurelings-BontekoeLiesbeth. 2019. “God Representations and Aspects of Psychological Functioning: A Meta-Analysis.”Cogent Psychology6(1):Article 1647926.
68.
TaniguchiHiromi. 2015. “Interpersonal Mattering in Friendship as a Predictor of Happiness in Japan: The Case of Tokyoites.”Journal of Happiness Studies16(6):1475–91.
69.
TaylorJohnMcFarlandMichael J.CarrDawn C.2019. “Age, Perceptions of Mattering, and Allostatic Load.”Journal of Aging and Health31(10):1830–49.
70.
TaylorJohnTurnerR. Jay. 2001. “A Longitudinal Study of the Role and Significance of Mattering to Others for Depressive Symptoms.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior42(3):310–25.
71.
ThomsonRobert A.Jr.FroesePaul. 2018. “God, Party, and the Poor: How Politics and Religion Interact to Affect Economic Justice Attitudes.”Sociological Forum33:334–53.
72.
TremlinTodd. 2005. “Divergent Religion: A Dual-Process Model of Religious Thought, Behavior, and Morphology.” Pp. 69–83 in Mind and Religion: Psychological and Cognitive Foundations of Religiosity, edited by WhitehouseH.McCauleyR. N.Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira Press.
73.
TungEsther S.RuffingElizabeth G.PaineDavid R.JankowskiPeter J.SandageSteven J.2018. “Attachment to God as Mediator of the Relationship Between God Representations and Mental Health.”Journal of Spirituality in Mental Health20(2):95–113.
74.
UeckerJeremy E.EllisonChristopher G.FlannellyKevin J.BurdetteAmy M.2016. “Belief in Human Sinfulness, Belief in Experiencing Divine Forgiveness, and Psychiatric Symptoms.”Review of Religious Research58:1–26.
75.
UnneverJames D.CullenFrancis T.BartkowskiJohn P.2006. “Images of God and Public Support for Capital Punishment: Does a Close Relationship With a Loving God Matter?”Criminology: An Interdisciplinary Journal44(4):835–66.
76.
UpenieksLauraBonhagRebecca. 2024. “Masculine God Imagery and Sense of Life Purpose: Examining Contingencies With America’s “Four Gods”. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion63:76–102.
77.
UpenieksLauraOrfanidisChristosHillTerrence D.2023. “The Nature of Power: Elaborating the Association Between Divine Control and Mental Health.”Society and Mental Health. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/21568693231201990.
78.
YaliAnn MarieGlazerSari (Sara)ExlineJulie J.2019. “Closeness to God, Anger Toward God, and Seeing Such Anger as Morally Acceptable: Links to Life Satisfaction.”Mental Health, Religion & Culture22(2):144–60.
