Assessment is critical to rehabilitation practice and research, and self-reports are a commonly used form of assessment. This study examines a gender effect according to item wording on the Perceived Stress Scale for adults with multiple sclerosis. Past studies have demonstrated two-factor solutions on this scale and other scales measuring stress-related constructs with factor loadings being determined by item wording. Moreover, women have typically scored higher on these measured constructs. However, a literature review reveals that this gender difference often manifests only on the factor composed of negatively worded items. This study extends this line of research by examining gender differences on the Perceived Stress Scale on the negatively worded items at both the item and bundle levels after controlling for responses on the positively worded items. Implications of this study on the field of rehabilitation are discussed.
AdornoT. W.Frenkel-BrunswickE.LevinsonD.SanfordR. N. (1950). The authoritarian personality. New York: Harper.
2.
AntonovskyA. (1985). Health, stress, and coping: New perspectives on mental and physical well-being. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
3.
BelliniJ.RumrillP. (2009). Research in rehabilitation counseling (2nd ed.). Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
4.
BishopM. (2005). Quality of life and psychosocial adaptation to chronic illness and disability: Preliminary analysis of a conceptual and theoretical synthesis. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 48(4), 219–231.
5.
BroekmanB.F.P.NyuntS. Z.NitiM.JinA. Z.KoS. M.KumarR.. . . NgT. P. (2008). Differential item functioning of the Geriatric Depression Scale in an Asian population. Journal of Affective Disorders, 108, 285–290.
6.
CarleA. C.MillsapR. E.ColeD. A. (2008). Measurement bias across gender on the Children’s Depression Inventory: Evidence for invariance from two latent variable models. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 68(2), 281–303.
7.
CarminesE. G.ZellerR. A. (1979). Reliability and validity assessment. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
8.
ChanF.RosenthalD. A. (2006). Advanced research methodology in rehabilitation. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 49(4), 219–222.
9.
ChanF.TarvydasV.BlalockK.StrauserD.AtkinsB. (2009). Unifying and elevating rehabilitation counseling through model-driven, diversity-sensitive, evidence-based practice. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 52, 114–119.
10.
ChangH.MazzeoJ.RoussosL. (1996). Detecting DIF for polytomously scored items: An adaptation of the SIBTEST procedure. Journal of Educational Measurement, 33(3), 333–353.
11.
ChronisterJ. A.ChanF.da Silva CardosoE.LynchR. T.RosenthalD. A. (2008). The evidence-based practice movement in healthcare: Implications for rehabilitation. Journal of Rehabilitation, 74, 6–15.
12.
CohenJ. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155–159.
13.
CohenS.KamarckT.MermelsteinR. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385–396.
14.
CohenS.WilliamsonG. M. (1988). Perceived stress in a probability sample of the United States. In SpacapanS.OskampS. (Eds.), The social psychology of health (pp. 31–67). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
15.
ColeS. R. (1999). Assessment of differential item functioning in the Perceived Stress Scale–10. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 53, 319–320.
16.
CrockerL.AlginaJ. (1986). Introduction to classical and modern test theory. Orlando: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
17.
CronbachL. J. (1946). Response sets and test validity. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 6, 474–494.
18.
DanekM. M.ParkerR.SzymanskiE. M. (1991). Disability research and policy: Forging an alliance. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 22, 5–10.
19.
DillmanD. A.SmythJ. D.ChristianL. M. (2009). Internet, mail, and mixed-mode surveys: The tailored design methods. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons.
20.
EdwardsA. L. (1990). Construct validity and social desirability. American Psychologist, 45, 207–209.
21.
FalvoD. R. (2009). Medical and psychological aspects of chronic illness and disability (4th ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett.
22.
FarabaughA. H.MischoulonD.FavaM.GreenC.GuykerW.AlpertJ. (2004). The potential relationship between levels of perceived stress and subtypes of major depressive disorder (MDD). Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 110, 465–470.
23.
FlakeE. M.DavisB. E.JohnsonP. L.MiddletonL. S. (2009). The psychosocial effects of deployment on military children. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 30(4), 271–278.
24.
FolkmanS.MoskowitzJ. L. (2004). Coping: Pitfalls and promise. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 745–774.
25.
GierlM. J. (2005). Using multidimensionality-based DIF analyses to identify and interpret constructs that elicit group differences. Educational Measurement: Issues & Practice, 24(1), 3–14.
26.
GilL.AmramT. (2009). Resources and coping with stressful events. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30(6), 685–707.
27.
GitchelD.TurnerR.RumrillP. (2010). Differential item functioning in rehabilitation research. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment, and Rehabilitation, 36(3), 361–369.
28.
Golden-KreutzD. M.BrowneM. W.FriersonG. M.AndersenB. L. (2004). Assessing stress in cancer patients: A second-order factor analysis model for the Perceived Stress Scale. Assessment, 11(3), 216–223.
29.
HershensonD. B. (1998). Systemic, ecological model for rehabilitation counseling. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 42(1), 40–50.
30.
HewittP. L.FlettG. L.MosherS. W. (1992). The Perceived Stress Scale: Factor structure and relation to depression symptoms in a psychiatric sample. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 14(3), 247–257.
31.
HobfollS. E.SchwarzerR.ChonK. K. (1998). Disentangling the stress labyrinth: Interpreting the meaning of the term stress as it is studied in health context. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 11, 181–212.
32.
KirkR. E. (1995). Experimental design: Procedures for the behavioral sciences. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
33.
LaiJ.C.L. (1994). Differential predictive power of the positively versus the negatively worded items of the Life Orientation Test. Psychological Reports, 75, 1507–1515.
34.
LazarusR. S. (1966). Psychological stress and the coping process. New York: McGraw-Hill.
35.
LazarusR. S. (1977). Psychological stress and coping in adaptation and illness. In LipowskiZ. J.LipsiD. R.WhybrowP. C. (Eds.), Psychosomatic medicine: Current trends (pp. 14–26). New York: Oxford University Press.
36.
LazarusR. S.FolkmanS. (1984). Stress appraisal and coping. New York: Springer.
37.
LewisA. N. (2006). Three-factor model of multicultural counseling for consumers with disabilities. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 24(3), 151–159.
38.
LivnehH.AntonakR. F. (1997). Psychosocial adaptation to chronic illness and disability. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen.
39.
LivnehH.AntonakR. F. (2005). Psychosocial adaptation to chronic illness and disability: A primer for counselors. Journal of Counseling and Development, 83, 12–20.
40.
LivnehH.MartzE. (2007). An introduction to coping theory and research. In MartzE.LivnehH. (Eds.), Coping with chronic illness and disability: Theoretical, empirical, and clinical aspects (pp. 3–28). New York: Springer.
41.
MacDonald-WilsonK. L.NemecP. B. (2005). The international classification of functioning (ICF) in psychiatric rehabilitation. Rehabilitation Education, 19, 159–176.
42.
MartinR. A.KazarianS. S.BreiterH. J. (1995). Perceived stress, life events, dysfunctional attitudes, and depression in adolescent psychiatric inpatients. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 17(1), 81–95.
43.
McNultyK. (2007). Coping with multiple sclerosis: Considerations. In MartzE.LivnehH. (Eds.), Coping with chronic illness and disability: Theoretical, empirical, and clinical aspects (pp. 289–312). New York: Springer.
44.
MillerJ. F. (2000). Coping with chronic illness: Overcoming powerlessness. Philadelphia: F. D. Davis.
45.
MimuraC.GriffithsP. (2003). A Japanese version of the Perceived Stress Scale: Translation and preliminary test. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 41, 379–385.
46.
MimuraC.GriffithsP. (2008). A Japanese version of the Perceived Stress Scale: Cross-cultural translation and equivalence assessment. BMC Psychiatry, 8(85). doi: 10.1186/1471-244x-8-85
47.
MitchellA. M.CraneP. A.KimY. (2008). Perceived stress in survivors of suicide: Psychometric properties of the Perceived Stress Scale. Research in Nursing & Health, 31, 576–585.
48.
MookJ.KleijnW. C.van der PloegH. M. (1991). Symptom-positively and -negatively worded items in two popular self-report inventories of anxiety and depression. Psychological Reports, 69, 551–560.
49.
MookJ.KleijnW. C.van der PloegH. M. (1992). Positively and negatively worded items in a self-report measure of dispositional optimism. Psychological Reports, 71, 275–278.
50.
MookJ.van der PloegH. M.KleijnW. C. (1992). Symptom-positive and symptom-negative items in the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory: A comparison and replication. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 5, 134–145.
51.
MoosR. H.SwindleR. W. (1990). Stressful life circumstances: Concepts and measures. Stress Medicine, 6, 171–178.
52.
Nolen-HoeksemaS. (1990). Sex differences in depression. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
53.
Nolen-HoeksemaS. (2001). Gender differences in depression. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10, 173–176.
54.
NunnallyJ. C.BernsteinI. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
55.
OlneyM.StrohmerD.KennedyJ. (2002). Why research matters: Forging a reciprocal relationship between the researcher and the practitioner. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 46(1), 2–4.
56.
ÖrücüM. Ç.DemirA. (2009). Psychometric evaluation of Perceived Stress Scale for Turkish university students. Stress and Health, 25, 103–109.
57.
PackT.RoesslerR. T.TurnerR.RobertsonJ. (2007). Prediction of turnover intentions among employed adults with multiple sclerosis. Journal of Rehabilitation, 73(3), 26–35.
58.
ParkerR. M.BoltonB. (2005). Psychological assessment in rehabilitation. In ParkerR. M.SzymanskiE. M. (Eds.), Rehabilitation counseling: Basics and beyond (4th ed., pp. 307–334). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
59.
PetersonD. B.RosenthalD. A. (2005). The international classification of functioning, disability and health (ICF): A primer for rehabilitation educators. Rehabilitation Education, 19, 81–94.
60.
PetersonN. A.SpeerP. A.HugheyJ. (2006). Measuring sense of community: A methodological interpretation of the factor structure debate. Journal of Community Psychology, 34(4), 453–469.
61.
RamírezG.M.T.HernándezR. L. (2007). Factor structure of the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) in a sample from Mexico. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 10(1), 199–206.
62.
RauschW. A.SchweitzerK.MoosbruggerH. (2007). Method effects due to social desirability as a parsimonious explanation of the deviation from unidimensionality in LOT-R scores. Personality and Individual Differences, 42(8), 1597–1607.
63.
RemorE. (2006). Psychometric properties of a European Spanish version of the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS). The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 9(1), 86–93.
64.
RobertiJ. W.HarringtonL. N.StorchE. A. (2006). Further psychometric support for the 10-item version of the Perceived Stress Scale. Journal of College Counseling, 9, 135–147.
65.
RoesslerR. T.RumrillP. D.FitzgeraldS. H. (2004). Predictors of employment status for people with multiple sclerosis. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 47(2), 96–103.
66.
RoesslerR. T.TurnerR. C.RobertsonJ. L.RumrillP. D. (2005). Gender and perceived illness severity: Differential indicators of employment concerns for adults with multiple sclerosis?Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 48(2), 66–74.
67.
RumrillP. D.HennesseyM. L. (2001). Multiple sclerosis: A guide for rehabilitation and health care professionals. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
68.
RumrillP. D.RoesslerR. T.FitzgeraldS. M. (2004). Vocational rehabilitation-related predictors of quality of life among persons with multiple sclerosis. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 20, 155–163.
69.
SharpL. K.KimmelL. G.KeeR.SaltounC.ChangC. (2007). Assessing the Perceived Stress Scale for African American adults with asthma and low literacy. Journal of Asthma, 44, 311–316.
70.
SmithL. L.ReiseS. P. (1998). Gender differences on negative affectivity: An IRT study of differential item functioning on the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire Stress Reaction Scale. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(5), 1350–1362.
71.
SteinfeldE.DanfordG. S. (1999). Enabling environments: Measuring the impact of environment on disability and rehabilitation. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
72.
StevensJ. (2002). Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences (4th ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
73.
SumiK. (2006). Reliability and validity of the Japanese version of the Perceived Stress Scale. The Japanese Journal of Health Psychology, 19(2), 44–53.
74.
ThayerJ. F.RossyL. A.Ruiz-PadialE.JohnsenB. H. (2003). Gender differences in the relationship between emotional regulation and depressive symptoms. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27(3), 349–364.
75.
TrouilletR.GanaK.LourelM.FortI. (2009). Predictive value of age for coping: The role of self-efficacy, social support satisfaction and perceived stress. Aging and Mental Health, 13(3), 357–366.
76.
World Health Organization. (2001). International classification of functioning, disability and health. Geneva: World Health Organization.
77.
WrightB. (1983). Physical disability: A psychosocial approach (2nd ed.). New York: Harper & Row.
