Informal Digital Learning of English in Asian English as a Foreign Language Contexts: A Thematic Review

Abstract

Research on informal digital learning of English (IDLE) has proliferated in the field of Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) over the past decade, due largely to the status of English as a global language and the increasing accessibility of digital technologies among students of the digital native generation. In this article, we report the results of a thematic review we conducted of 49 empirical studies on IDLE in Asian English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts during the years 2014–2024. In this review, we first clarify the conceptual orientations of the IDLE scholarship in a changing world shaped by globalization and technological innovations. We then present three major research strands that Asian TESOL researchers and practitioners should attend to: how IDLE serves as a new individual difference variable in second language development; how language teachers perceive and prepare for pedagogically integrating IDLE; and how unequal IDLE practices reinforce issues of the digital divide. By mapping out the terrain of informal digital learning of English in Asian EFL contexts, we point out the pedagogical implications and future investigations that can create conditions for empowering and enabling Asian students to become self-directed and productive informal language learners in a rapidly changing digital world.

Introduction

The field of TESOL has witnessed significant changes in how learners engage with English beyond formal classroom settings (Sundqvist, 2024). Among these changes, IDLE has emerged as a distinctive phenomenon at the intersection of TESOL and informal language learning. Unlike related concepts such as ‘the digital wilds’ (Liu, 2025; Sauro and Zourou, 2019) or ‘autonomous language learning’ (Gao, 2010), IDLE specifically acknowledges the global status of English and the increasing accessibility of digital technologies among today's learners. Building on Benson's (2011) four-dimensional framework of language learning beyond the classroom, IDLE is widely understood as self-directed English learning activities in out-of-class and naturalistic settings, motivated by personal interests and learning needs (Dressman et al., 2025; Lee, 2022; Soyoof et al., 2023).

Lee and Drajati (2019) conceptualize IDLE through two main categories: receptive IDLE activities (RIA) and productive IDLE activities (PIA). RIA focuses on the consumption of English content (e.g. watching English movies) and thus suggests the identity of language learners as content consumers, whereas PIA draws attention to the creation of English content (e.g. social media posts in English), indicating that language learners are content producers. This conceptualization has gained particular relevance in Asian contexts, such as South Korea (Lee and Dressman, 2018; Lee and Lee, 2021), China (Liu et al., 2023a; Zhang and Liu, 2024), Iran (Rezai et al., 2024) and Kazakhstan (Zadorozhnyy and Lee, 2023), where despite limited real-world English exposure, students can actively engage with authentic English through digital platforms. This growing body of IDLE scholarship has also confirmed that engaging students with IDLE can bring them numerous linguistic, affective and cultural benefits, contributing to their development into lifelong learners (Chen, 2024).

As the body of research on IDLE grows, several review articles have examined different aspects of this phenomenon. Soyoof et al. (2023) conducted a scoping review based on 35 papers published between 1980 and 2020, presenting a brief understanding of the benefits and antecedents of IDLE. Guo and Lee (2023) undertook a more comprehensive, systematic review through the lens of ecological systems theory, examining how factors across different ecological levels influence learners’ perception and participation in IDLE. They found that students’ involvement with IDLE results from the interplay of microsystem (e.g. teachers), mesosystem (e.g. online spaces), exosystem (e.g. family backgrounds) and macrosystem (e.g. educational system) influences.

Recognizing the context-dependent nature of how learners negotiate their learning needs and conditions to engage in IDLE (Liu and Darvin, 2024), the present review focuses specifically on Asian EFL settings. This context is particularly significant as students in these environments often navigate test-focused utilitarian learning beliefs while seeking opportunities for authentic language use through informal digital channels (Lee and Dressman, 2018). Through systematic analysis of recent empirical studies, this review identifies and examines three interconnected research strands that have emerged as central to understanding IDLE in Asian EFL contexts. The findings are expected to advance our existing knowledge of informal language learning, offering contextualized implications for pedagogical practices and future research to better bridge IDLE and formal instruction.

Research Methods and Procedures

In this review, we use the standards and best practices for an integrative literature review (Torraco, 2005) to build, evaluate and combine the existing body of knowledge on IDLE in Asian EFL settings. We did this in four steps. First, we performed an initial literature search in two of the largest and most reputable scholarly databases, Scopus and Web of Science Core Collections, which offered high-quality and reliable publications undergoing a rigorous peer-review process. Recognizing that research on informal digital English learning existed before the formal conceptualization of IDLE (Lee and Dressman, 2018), we used multiple search terms to capture relevant studies: ‘informal digital learning of English’, ‘online informal learning of English’ and ‘informal language learning’. Second, the initial databases (n = 1973) were systematically screened and refined using the following inclusion criteria:

The article must build on empirical evidence.

The research was situated within EFL countries/regions where English is a foreign language rather than the official language (e.g. Singapore).

The article's theoretical framework and operational definition aligned with the core principles of IDLE.

The article was written in English and published between 2014 and 2024. This timeframe was selected to capture both the foundational work that informed IDLE's conceptualization and its subsequent development as a formal construct.

Based on the screening results and reference searching of the included studies, 49 empirical studies were incorporated into this review (see Online Appendix A). Third, we adopted an inductive and iterative approach to coding the abstracts and major findings of the 49 articles in NVivo 12. The coding results helped us map out the tentative categories or themes. Finally, through comparative analysis and discussion of these themes for internal consistency, we identified and synthesized three prominent research strands: (a) how IDLE serves as a new individual difference (ID) variable in second language (L2) development; (b) how language teachers perceive and prepare for pedagogically integrating IDLE; and (c) how unequal IDLE practices reinforce issues of the digital divide. These strands emerged organically from our systematic analysis rather than being predetermined categories.

IDLE as an Emergent ID variable in L2 Development

In her position paper on extramural English, Sundqvist (2024) argues that out-of-class L2 English learning constitutes an important ID factor in improving L2 proficiency. The first line of research substantiates this observation, demonstrating how IDLE functions as an emergent ID variable significantly affecting L2 development in our digitally mediated world. Studies employing quantitative and mixed-method designs have revealed that EFL learners who actively engage in IDLE demonstrate enhanced performance in standardized tests like Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC) (Lee and Dressman, 2018) and improved linguistic skills across listening (Chen, 2024), reading (Liu and Darvin, 2024) and speaking domains (Bin-Hady and Al-Tamimi, 2021). Beyond language proficiency, IDLE participation correlates with heightened motivation (Lee and Lee, 2021; Liu, 2024), increased willingness to communicate (Zadorozhnyy and Lee, 2023) and various affective benefits including reduced anxiety (Lee and Drajati, 2019), greater enjoyment (Lee and Lee, 2021), enhanced self-efficacy (Zadorozhnyy and Lee, 2023), and stronger linguistic confidence (Lee and Drajati, 2019; Liu and Darvin, 2024). Research has also documented IDLE's influence on cultural dimensions of L2 development, particularly intercultural competence (Liu et al., 2023a) and attitudes toward English varieties (Lee et al., 2021).

The distinctive nature of IDLE as an ID variable is further evidenced by its dynamic interplay with other IDs. Research reveals that factors such as enjoyment, ideal L2 self, and self-efficacy function as both antecedents and outcomes of IDLE engagement, creating complex, non-linear patterns of influence on L2 English development (Chen, 2024; Lee, 2022; Lee and Drajati, 2019; Liu et al., 2023a; Liu et al., 2024). These findings reflect a broader structural shift in L2 English learning from traditional classroom-based instruction toward self-directed, out-of-class learning in our globalized, digital world. Indeed, learners across Asia increasingly view IDLE as foundational to their English learning journey, sometimes prioritizing it over classroom instruction. Liu and Darvin's (2024) case study illustrates this shift, documenting how two rural Chinese EFL learners developed productive IDLE trajectories despite feeling marginalized in formal educational settings. Through IDLE, these learners successfully negotiated competent English learner identities and claimed legitimate speaking rights, acquiring both proficiency and confidence in the English language.

This research strand establishes IDLE's significance as an ID variable through its demonstrated impact on linguistic, affective, and cultural outcomes and its intricate relationships with other IDs. It also suggests that recognizing IDLE as an ID variable reflects and responds to the ongoing structural change of L2 education in the digital age.

Language Teachers’ Perceptions and Readiness for Integrating IDLE

The second stream of research examines the complex relationship between language teachers and IDLE, particularly focusing on how teachers navigate the tension between institutional demands and the pedagogical integration of IDLE. Rezai et al. (2024) investigated 26 Iranian EFL teachers’ perceptions of ecological factors influencing students’ IDLE engagement, highlighting how the form-focused, test-driven nature of the Iranian educational system challenges meaningful IDLE integration. Liu and Wang's (2024) large-scale survey of 1008 Chinese English teachers, grounded in the theory of planned behaviors, revealed that teachers’ intention to integrate IDLE is shaped by their attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control. Taken together, these studies underscore that successful IDLE integration requires teachers not only to cultivate positive attitudes toward digital learning but also to challenge entrenched test-focused teaching practices. Additionally, teachers’ digital literacy and personal experience with technology emerge as crucial factors in their perceived ability to bridge IDLE and formal instruction (Liu and Wang, 2024; Rezai et al., 2024).

Another significant finding within this research strand is the intrinsic connection between IDLE integration and ongoing teacher professional development (Lee et al., 2021; Rezai et al., 2024; Zadorozhnyy and Yu, 2023). Zadorozhnyy and Yu's (2023) study of pre-service EFL teachers in Kazakhstan illuminates this relationship through the lens of teacher identity. Their analysis of 32 interviews revealed how participants’ dual identities as language learners and teachers enhanced their self-efficacy in designing personalized IDLE tasks. This finding carries particular significance in Central Asian collectivist societies like Kazakhstan, where English teaching remains influenced by Soviet-era methodologies that position instructors as authoritative knowledge providers (Zadorozhnyy and Yu, 2023).

Unequal IDLE Practices that Reinforce Issues of the Digital Divide

The third research strand, though smaller in scope, highlights critical issues of digital inequity in IDLE participation, revealing how unequal access to digital technologies and varying levels of digital literacy shape learners’ engagement patterns in IDLE (Bin-Hady and Al-Tamimi, 2021; Gonen and Kızılay, 2023; Liu et al., 2023a). Gonen and Kızılay's (2023) investigation of IDLE practices among Turkish private university students revealed that while learners engaged in diverse activities, from consuming BBC news to participating in English conversations on Instagram, their engagement was significantly constrained by material barriers such as data plan costs and platform subscription fees. More severe digital access challenges emerge in contexts like Yemen, where Bin-Hady and Al-Tamimi (2021) documented how disparities in device access, internet availability, and connection stability substantially impact students’ ability to maintain consistent IDLE engagement. Even in technologically advanced countries such as China and Iran, where digital infrastructure is generally robust and affordable, national internet restrictions create barriers to accessing authentic English learning resources, compelling students to navigate these constraints in agentive ways (Liu and Darvin, 2024; Rezai et al., 2024). In a study of how imagination motivates Chinese EFL learners to participate in IDLE, Liu et al. (2023b) emphasized that students should be equipped not only with physical access to digital technologies but also with symbolic access (i.e. the digital disposition that recognizes technology use as a way of knowledge acquisition) to the wider globalized IDLE ecology. Those students with sufficient material resources and a correct digital disposition can acquire abundant authentic online English learning resources to engage with the social imaginaries of globalization, whereas students without access to the wider IDLE environment may fail to participate in the digital age as legitimate and competent English speakers. Such unequal access to IDLE not only leads to the performance gap between English learners with different access to resources but also reinforces the issues of digital divides in an unequal world.

Implications for Future Practices and Research Directions

Our review suggests several important implications for language education stakeholders in Asian EFL contexts. First, EFL teachers should recognize IDLE as a significant ID variable in L2 development and thoughtfully integrate it into their curriculum. This integration can bridge students’ informal digital learning experiences with classroom instruction through activities such as student-led sharing of IDLE practices and semi-structured tasks supporting learner-driven exploration of digital spaces where English is used as a lingua franca. Second, systematic professional development is crucial for supporting Asian EFL teachers to leverage IDLE pedagogically. This includes fostering positive attitudes toward digital learning while acknowledging traditional pedagogical values, developing teachers’ digital literacy skills and creating balanced approaches that complement existing teaching practices. Teacher education programs should include IDLE as a key component, helping them develop context-appropriate strategies for pedagogically utilizing IDLE. Third, addressing digital equity in Asian EFL contexts requires careful consideration of local resources and constraints. Educational institutions and policymakers should work toward sustainable solutions for providing adequate digital access, considering factors such as device availability, internet connectivity, and data costs within their specific contexts. Context-sensitive interventions might include partnerships with local communities and technology providers to expand students’ digital learning opportunities.

Future research could productively explore several areas: the interaction between IDLE and other emerging ID variables (e.g. implicit learning aptitude), context-specific strategies for connecting IDLE with formal instruction, and the development of assessment tools that capture IDL's multifaceted nature in Asian EFL settings. Additionally, examining IDLE through new theoretical lenses could provide fresh insights into how IDLE shapes L2 English development in Asian contexts.

Conclusion

This thematic review has critically analyzed the major research strands on IDLE in Asian EFL contexts, including IDLE as an emergent ID variable in L2 development, language teachers’ perceptions and readiness for integrating IDLE, and unequal access to IDLE. The findings highlight the need for EFL teachers to recognize the importance of IDLE, incorporate it into their curriculum, receive continuous training and support, and promote equal access to IDLE. By synthesizing the major research strands, identifying pedagogical implications and proposing future directions, we hope this paper can provide an updated understanding of IDLE and inspire TESOL researchers further to explore the promising field of IDLE in their localized contexts.

Supplemental Material

sj-docx-1-rel-10.1177_00336882251332309 - Supplemental material for Informal Digital Learning of English in Asian English as a Foreign Language Contexts: A Thematic Review

Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-rel-10.1177_00336882251332309 for Informal Digital Learning of English in Asian English as a Foreign Language Contexts: A Thematic Review by Guangxiang Leon Liu, Ali Soyoof *, Ju Seong Lee and Lawrence Jun Zhang in RELC Journal

Supplemental Material

sj-docx-2-rel-10.1177_00336882251332309 - Supplemental material for Informal Digital Learning of English in Asian English as a Foreign Language Contexts: A Thematic Review

Supplemental material, sj-docx-2-rel-10.1177_00336882251332309 for Informal Digital Learning of English in Asian English as a Foreign Language Contexts: A Thematic Review by Guangxiang Leon Liu, Ali Soyoof *, Ju Seong Lee and Lawrence Jun Zhang in RELC Journal