This paper suggests that learners of a second or foreign language are rarely helped by teachers or materials to develop an L2 inner voice and it makes the following claims:
• Their L 1 inner voice plays a vitally important role in helping people to understand and communicate with themselves and with their world outside.
• The structure, syntax and lexicon used by the L1 inner voice are distinctively different from those used by the L 1 outer voice.
• L2 learners do not typically develop an effective L2 inner voice.
• L2 learners would benefit considerably from developing an effective L2 inner voice as soon as possible in the learning process.
• L2 learners can be helped to develop an effective L2 inner voice by their teachers and by their learning materials
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Anderson, J.R.1995Learning and Memory: An Integrated Approach ( New York: John Wiley & Sons).
2.
Appel, G., and J.P. Lantolf1994 'Speaking as Mediation: A Study of L1 and L2 Text Recall Tasks', Modern Language Journal78.4: 437-52.
3.
Aspinall, P.1999The House by the Sea (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
4.
Ausubel, D.P., E.V. Sullivan and S.W. Ives1980Theory and Problems of Child Development ( New York: Grune & Stratton, 3rd edn).
5.
Berk, L.E., and R.M. Diaz (eds.) 1992Private Speech: From Social Interaction to Self-Regulation (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum).
6.
Bivens, J.A., and F. Hagstrom1992'The Representation of Private Speech in Children's Literature' , in Berk and Diaz 1992.
7.
Blonskii, P.P.1964 'Memory and Thought', Selected Works on Psychology (Moscow: Prosveshchenie Press).
8.
Bryson, B.2001Down Under (London: Black Swan).
9.
Carrol, L.1976Alice in Wonderland (simplified by D.K. Swan; London: Longman).
10.
Cleland, D.L.1971 'Vocalism in Silent Reading', Visible Language2: 145-57.
11.
Edfelt, A.W.1960Silent Speech and Silent Reading (Chicago : University of Chicago Press).
12.
Gattegno, C.1963Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools ( Reading: Educational Explorers).
13.
Gatherscole, S.E., and A.D. Badderley1993Working Memory and Language (Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates).
14.
Geschwind, N.1990'Specialisations of the Human Brain', in R.R. Llinas (ed.), The Workings of the Brain: Development, Memory and Perception (New York: W.H. Freeman): 105-120.
15.
Guerro, M.C.M. de 1994'Form and Functions of Inner Speech in Adult Second Language Learning', in Lantolf and Appel 1994: 83-116.
16.
1999'Inner Speech as Mental Rehearsal: The Case of Advanced L2 Learners', Issues in Applied Linguistics10: 27-55.
17.
Hardyck, C.D.1968The Effect of Sub-vocal Speech on Reading ( Arlington, VA: [ERIC Document Reproduction Service No ED 022 656]).
18.
Helgesen, M.2001'Innervoice, Time, Planning & Practice', http://www.mgu.ac.jp/~ic/helgesen2/paper.htm.
19.
Hill, D.A.1999A Matter of Chance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
20.
Hope, A.1965The Prisoner of Zenda (abridged and simplified by A.J. Brayley; London: Longman).
21.
Idle, E.1999The Road to Mars (London: Boxtree).
22.
Klein, W.1981Inner Speech Cue Preference in Reading Disabled and Normal Chidren (Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms International).
23.
Klein, W., and C. Perdue1997 'The Basic Variety (or: Couldn't Natural Languages be Much Simpler?)', Second Language Research13.4: 289-300.
Lantolf, J.P., and G. Appel (eds.) 1994Vygotskian Approaches to Second Language Research (Norwood, NJ: Ablex).
26.
Leather, S.1999Death in the Dojo (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
27.
Lodge, D.2001Thinks (London: Secker & Warburg ).
28.
Maley, A.1999He Knows Too Much (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
29.
Masuhara, H.1998'Factors Influencing the Reading Difficulties of Advanced Learners of English when Reading Authentic Texts' (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Luton).
30.
McCafferty, S.G.1994'The Use of Private Speech by Adult EFL Learners at Different Levels of Proficiency', in J.P. Lantolf and G. Appel (eds.), Vygotskian Approaches to Second Language Research (Norwood, NJ: Ablex): 117-34.
31.
McCarthy, P.2000McCarthy's Bar (London: Hodder & Stoughton).
32.
McGuigan, F.J.1964Silent Speech During Silent Reading ( Arlington, VA: [ERIC Document Reproduction Service No ED 003 312]).
33.
Moses, A.1999a Apollo's Gold (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
34.
1999 b Dolphin Music (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
35.
Naipaul, V.S.2001Half a Life (London: Picador).
36.
Naylor, H.1999In the Shadow of the Mountain (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press).
37.
O'Connor, J. (ed.) 2001Yeats is Dead (London: Jonathan Cape).
38.
Pienemann, M.1985'Leamability and Syllabus Construction', in K. Hyltenstam and M. Pienemann (eds.), Modelling and Assessing Second Language Acquisition (Clevedon, Avon: Multilingual Maters ).
39.
Pietro, R.J., di 1987Strategic Interaction (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press).
40.
Prowse, P.1999Help (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
41.
Sadoski, M., and A. Paivio1994'A Dual Coding Theory of Imagery and Verbal Processes in Reading Comprehension', in R.B. Ruddell, M.R. Ruddell and H. Singer (eds.), Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading (Newark, DE: International Reading Association , 4th edn): 582-601.
42.
Schmidt, R.1992 'Psychological Mechanisms Underlying Second Language Fluency' , Studies in Second Language Acquisition14: 357-85.
43.
Sion, C.1995Talking to Yourself in English: An Alternative Approach to Self-Study (Vols. 1 and 2). (Heerlen: Training Etcetera).
44.
Sokolov, A.N.1972Inner Speech and Thought (New York: Plenum Press).
45.
Stevick, E.1986Images and Options in the Language Classroom ( Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
46.
Soyinka, W.1967 'Telephone Conversation', Idanre and Other Poems (London: Methuen).
47.
Swan, D.K.1983The Adventures of Sindbad the Sailor ( London: Longman).
48.
Swain, M.1985'Communicative Competence: Some Roles of Comprehensible Input and Comprehensible Output in its Development', in S. Gass and C. Madden (eds.), Input in Second Language Acquisition (Rowley, MS: Newbury House): 235-53.
49.
Tomlinson, B.1990 'Managing Change in Indonesian High Schools', ELT Journal44.1: 25-37.
50.
1994'TPR Materials', FOLIO 1.2:8-10.
51.
1997'The Role of Visualisation in the Reading of Literature in a Foreign Language' (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Nottingham).
52.
2000'Talking to Yourself: The Role of the Inner Voice in Language Learning', Applied Language Learning11.1: 123-54.
53.
2001a 'The Inner Voice: A Critical Factor in L2 Learning', Journal of the Imagination in Language Learning and Teaching6: 26-33.
54.
2001b 'Beginning to Read Forever', Reading in a Foreign Language13.1: 523-38.
55.
In progress Using literature to help L2 learners to develop their inner voice.
56.
Tuzi, F.1998 'The Inner Workbench in the EFL Classroom', IATEFL Newsletter7 (February-March).
57.
Underhill, A.1996'Using the Inner Workbench to Enrich Learning'. JALT Conference, Hiroshima, Japan.
58.
Vygotsky, L.S.1986Thought and Language (Cambridge, MA : MIT Press).
59.
Yevtushenko,Y.1962Selected Poems (trans. R. Milner-Gulland and P. Levi; Harmondsworth: Penguin Books).
