Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

Boredom proneness reflects a tendency to experience the state of boredom, which is correlated with negative affect (NA) and self-regulatory failure. Boredom states may motivate individuals to seek satisfying, stimulating experiences. Empirically, it is unclear whether boredom proneness is a relevant predictor of alcohol problems. In this exploratory investigation, we measured boredom proneness as a predictor of alcohol problems following a course of outpatient cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) for AUD. We hypothesized that (a) boredom proneness would be associated with alcohol consumption pre- and post-treatment and (b) that boredom proneness would predict alcohol problems indirectly through NA and anxiety sensitivity. Data for these analyses were drawn from a larger study that provided CBT for AUD outpatients (R01 AA024628). Participants (n = 181) were women (49%) and men seeking AUD treatment. Boredom proneness was associated with baseline but not end-of-treatment alcohol consumption. An indirect effects model was used to determine whether pre-treatment boredom proneness was indirectly associated with end-of-treatment drinking problems through mid-treatment NA and baseline anxiety sensitivity. As hypothesized, boredom proneness was indirectly and significantly associated with increased end-of-treatment alcohol use problems via increased NA and anxiety sensitivity [95% CI .03–.11]. Boredom proneness appears to negatively impact AUD outcomes through continued vulnerability to negative emotion states.

Keywords

alcohol use problems boredom proneness anxiety sensitivity alcohol use disorder treatment negative affect

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Allan

N. P.

Albanese

B. J.

Norr

A. M.

Zvolensky

M. J.

Schmidt

N. B.

(2015). Effects of anxiety sensitivity on alcohol problems: Evaluating chained mediation through generalized anxiety, depression and drinking motives. Addiction, 110(2), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.12739

Bambrah

Wardell

J. D.

Keough

M. T.

(2024). Longitudinal co-trajectories of depression and alcohol problems in adults during the Covid-19 pandemic. Current Psychology: A Journal for Diverse Perspectives on Diverse Psychological Issues, 43(16), 14955–14971. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-04109-4

Bench

S. W.

Lench

H. C.

(2013). On the function of boredom. Behavioral Sciences, 3(3), 459–472. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs3030459

Bench

S. W.

Lench

H. C.

(2019). Boredom as a seeking state: Boredom prompts the pursuit of novel (even negative) experiences. Emotion, 19(2), 242–254. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000433

Bieleke

Ripper

Schuler

Wolff

(2022). Boredom is the root of all evil – Or is it? A psychometric network approach to individual differences in behavioural responses to boredom. Royal Society Open Science, 9(9), Article 211998. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.211998

Blanchard

K. A.

Morgenstern

Morgan

T. J.

Lobouvie

E. W.

Bux

D. A.

(2003). Assessing consequences of substance use: Psychometric properties of the Inventory of Drug Use Consequences. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 17(4), 328–331. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-164X.17.4.328

Boswell

J. F.

Farchione

T. J.

Sauer-Zavala

Murray

H. W.

Fortune

M. R.

Barlow

D. H.

(2013). Anxiety sensitivity and interoceptive exposure: A transdiagnostic construct and change strategy. Behavior Therapy, 44(3), 417–431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2013.03.006

Brown

W. C.

Melas

M. T.

(2024). A narrative review of emotion regulation abilities, strategy use, and their relationship to alcohol. Current Addiction Reports, 11(2), 199–209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-024-00553-3

Browne

M. W.

Cudek

(1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In Bollen

K. A.

Long

J. S.

(Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136–162). Sage.

10.

Carey

K. B.

(1997). Reliability and validity of the time-line follow-back interview among psychiatric outpatients: A preliminary report. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 11(1), 26–33. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-164X.11.1.26

11.

Corran

Hendershot

C. S.

O'Connor

R. M.

(2023). Explanatory pathways linking anxiety sensitivity and alcohol (mis)use: A prospective state–trait analysis among emerging adults. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 37(4), 592–605. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000903

12.

Crockett

A. C.

Myhre

S. K.

Rokke

P. D.

(2015). Boredom proneness and emotion regulation predict emotional eating. Journal of Health Psychology, 20(5), 670–680. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105315573439

13.

Danckert

Mugon

Struk

Eastwood

(2018). Boredom: What is it good for? In Lench

L. C.

(Ed.), The function of emotions: When and why emotions help us (pp. 93–119). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77619-4

14.

DeMartini

K. S.

Carey

K. B.

(2011). The role of anxiety sensitivity and drinking motives in predicting alcohol use: A critical review. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(1), 169–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.10.001

15.

Eastwood

J. D.

Frischen

Fenske

M. J.

Smilek

(2012). The unengaged mind: Defining boredom in terms of attention. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(5), 482–495. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612456044

16.

Goetz

Frenzel

A. C.

Hall

N. C.

Nett

U. E.

Pekrun

Lipnevich

A. A.

(2014). Types of boredom: An experience sampling approach. Motivation and Emotion, 38(3), 401–419. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-013-9385-y

17.

Guillot

C. R.

Blumenthal

Zvolensky

M. J.

Schmidt

N. B.

(2018). Anxiety sensitivity components in relation to alcohol and cannabis use, motives, and problems in treatment-seeking cigarette smokers. Addictive Behaviors, 82, 166–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.03.008

18.

Havermans

R. C.

Vancleef

Kalamatianos

Nederkoorn

(2015). Eating and inflicting pain out of boredom. Appetite, 85(1), 52–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2014.11.007

19.

Hendricks

Savahl

Florence

(2015). Adolescent peer pressure, leisure boredom, and substance use in low-income Cape Town communities. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 43(1), 99–110. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2015.43.1.99

20.

Bentler

P. M.

(1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118

21.

IBM Corporation . (2025). IBM Statistics for Macintosh (Version 31). [Computer Software].

22.

Koob

G. F.

Powell

White

(2020). Addiction as a coping response: Hyperkatifeia, deaths of despair, and COVID-19. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 177(11), 1031–1037. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2020.20091375

23.

Laposa

J. M.

Hawley

L. L.

Grimm

K. J.

Katz

D. E.

Rector

N. A.

(2020). Anxiety sensitivity accelerates the temporal changes in obsessions and compulsions during Cognitive Behavioral Therapy. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 44(6), 1116–1131. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-020-10121-4

24.

Larimer

M. E.

Palmer

R. S.

Marlatt

G. A.

(2004). Relapse prevention: An overview of Marlatt’s cognitive-behavioral model. Psychosocial Treatments, 1–18.

25.

LePera

(2011). Relationships between boredom proneness, mindfulness, anxiety, depression, and substance use. The New School Psychology Bulletin, 8(2), 15–25.

26.

Linehan

(1993). Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder. New York: Guilford Press.

27.

Linehan

M. M.

(2025). DBT skills training manual. Guilford Publications.

28.

Linn

B. K.

Stasiewicz

P. R.

Zhao

Lucke

J. F.

Ruszczyk

M. U.

LaBarre

Bradizza

C. M.

(2021). The shape of change: Determining when mechanisms of behavior change are active in cognitive behavioral treatment for alcohol use disorder using time varying effect modeling. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 82(5), 629–637. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2021.82.629

29.

Linn

B. K.

Zhao

Stasiewicz

P. R.

Wilding

G. E.

Bradizza

C. M.

(2023). Relationship of negative emotionality, NIAAA recovery, and 3- and 6-month drinking outcomes among adults in treatment for alcohol use disorder. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 242, Article 109695. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2022.109695

30.

Little

T. D.

(2013). Longitudinal structural equation modeling. Guilford Press.

31.

McCaul

M. E.

Hutton

H. E.

Stephens

M. A.

Wand

G. S.

(2017). Anxiety, anxiety sensitivity, and perceived stress as predictors of recent drinking, alcohol craving, and social stress response in heavy drinkers. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 41(4), 836–845. https://doi.org/10.1111/acer.13350

32.

Muthén

L. K.

Muthén

B. O.

(1998-2020). Mplus user's guide. (8th ed.) Muthén & Muthén.

33.

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism . (2020). NIAAA recovery research definitions. https://www.niaaa.nih.gov/research/niaaa-recovery-from-alcohol-use-disorder/definitions

34.

Olthuis

J. V.

Watt

M. C.

Mackinnon

S. P.

Stewart

S. H.

(2015). CBT for high anxiety sensitivity: Alcohol outcomes. Addictive Behaviors, 46, 19–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2015.02.018

35.

Otto

M. W.

Eastman

Hearon

B. A.

Bickel

W. K.

Zvolensky

Smits

J. A. J.

Doan

S. N.

(2016). Anxiety sensitivity and working memory capacity: Risk factors and targets for health behavior promotion. Clinical Psychology Review, 49, 67–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2016.07.003

36.

Otto

M. W.

Smits

J. A. J.

Fitzgerald

H. E.

Powers

M. B.

Baird

S. O.

(2018). Anxiety sensitivity and your clinical practice. In Smits

J. A. J.

Otto

M. W.

Powers

M. B.

Baird

S. O.

(Eds.), Anxiety sensitivity: A clinical guide to assessment and treatment. Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-813495-5.00009-7

37.

Paulus

D. J.

Gallagher

M. W.

Zvolensky

M. J.

Leventhal

A. M.

(2021). Reciprocal longitudinal associations between anxiety sensitivity and alcohol consumption/problems across adolescence: Examining anxiety as a mediator and race/ethnicity as a moderator. Behavior Research and Therapy, 142, Article 103861. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2021.103861

38.

Project MATCH (Matching Alcoholism Treatment to Client Heterogeneity): Rationale and methods for a multisite clinical trial matching patients to alcoholism treatment . (1993). Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 17(6), 1130–1145. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1993.tb05219.x

39.

Schmidt

N. B.

Buckner

J. D.

Keough

M. E.

(2007). Anxiety sensitivity as a prospective predictor of alcohol use disorders. Behavior Modification, 31(2), 202–219. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445506297019

40.

Semcho

S. A.

Southward

M. W.

Stumpp

N. E.

MacLean

D. L.

Hood

C. O.

Wolitzky-Taylor

Sauer-Zavala

(2023). Aversive reactivity: A transdiagnostic functional bridge between neuroticism and avoidant behavioral coping. Journal of Emotion and Psychopathology, 1, 23–40. https://doi.org/10.55913/joep.v1i1.9

41.

Sobell

L. C.

Sobell

M. B.

(1995). Alcohol consumption measures. In Allen

J. P.

Columbus

(Eds.), Assessing alcohol problems: A guide for clinicians and researchers (pp. 55–73). Rockville, MD: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.

42.

Sommers

Vodanovich

S. J.

(2000). Boredom proneness: Its relationship to psychological- and physical-health symptoms. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 56(1), 149–155. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-4679(200001)56:1<149::aid-jclp14>3.0.co;2-y

43.

Stasiewicz

P. R.

Bradizza

C. M.

Schlauch

R. C.

Coffey

S. F.

Gulliver

S. B.

Gudleski

G. D.

Bole

C. W.

(2013). Affect regulation training (ART) for alcohol use disorders: Development of a novel intervention for negative affect drinkers. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 45(5), 433–443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2013.05.012

44.

Stewart

S. H.

Zvolensky

M. J.

Eifert

G. H.

(2001). Negative-reinforcement drinking motives mediate the relation between anxiety sensitivity and increased drinking behavior. Personality and Individual Differences, 31(2), 157–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00213-0

45.

Struk

A. A.

Carriere

J. S.

Cheyne

J. A.

Danckert

(2017). A short boredom proneness scale: Development and psychometric properties. Assessment, 24(3), 346–359. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191115609996

46.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration . (2012). SAMHSA working definition of recovery: 10 guiding principles of recovery. Department of Health and Human Services. https://library.samhsa.gov/product/samhsas-working-definition-recovery/pep12-recdef

47.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality . (2024). 2024 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.samhsa.gov/data/report/2024-nsduh-annual-national-report.

48.

Tam

K. Y.

Van Tilburg

W. A.

Chan

C. S.

(2021). What is boredom proneness? A comparison of three characterizations. Journal of Personality, 89(4), 831–846. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12618

49.

Taylor

S. A.

Zvolensky

M. J.

Cox

B. J.

Deacon

Heimberg

R. G.

Ledley

D. R.

Cardenas

S. J.

Holaway

R. M.

Sandin

Stewart

S. H.

Coles

Eng

Daly

E. S.

Arrindell

W. A.

Bouvard

(2007). Robust dimensions of anxiety sensitivity: Development and initial validation of the Anxiety Sensitivity Index-3. Psychological Assessment, 19(2), 176–188. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.19.2.176

50.

Todman

(2003). Boredom and psychotic disorders: Cognitive and motivational issues. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 66(2), 146–167. https://doi.org/10.1521/psyc.66.2.146.20623

51.

Turner

N. E.

Annis

H. M.

Sklar

S. M.

(1997). Measurement of antecedents to drug and alcohol use: Psychometric properties of the Inventory of Drug-Taking Situations (IDTS). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35(5), 465–483. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0005-7967(96)00119-2

52.

Vodanovich

S. J.

Verner

K. M.

Gilbride

T. V.

(1991). Boredom proneness: Its relationship to positive and negative affect. Psychological Reports, 69(3_suppl), 1139–1146. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1991.69.3f.1139

53.

Vodanovich

S. J.

Wallace

J. C.

Kass

S. J.

(2005). A confirmatory approach to the factor structure of the Boredom Proneness Scale: Evidence for a two-factor short form. Journal of Personality Assessment, 85(3), 295–303. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa8503_05

54.

Votaw

V. R.

Stein

E. R.

Witkiewitz

(2021). A longitudinal mediation model of negative emotionality, coping motives and drinking intensity among individuals receiving community treatment for alcohol use disorder. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 56(5), 573–580. https://doi.org/10.1093/alcalc/agab012

55.

Watson

Clark

L. A.

(1994). The PANAS-X: Manual for the positive and negative affect schedule-expanded form. University of Iowa.

56.

Weiss

N. H.

Kiefer

Goncharenko

Raudales

A. M.

Forkus

S. R.

Schick

M. R.

Contractor

A. A.

(2022). Emotion regulation and substance use: A meta-analysis. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 230, Article 109131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.109131

57.

Wilson

T. D.

Reinhard

D. A.

Westgate

E. C.

Gilbert

D. T.

Ellerbeck

Hahn

Shaked

(2014). Just think: The challenges of the disengaged mind. Science, 345(6192), 75–77. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1250830

58.

Witkiewitz

Villarroel

N. A.

(2009). Dynamic association between negative affect and alcohol lapses following alcohol treatment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77(4), 633–644. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015647

59.

Zhao

Linn

B. K.

Stasiewicz

P. R.

Wilding

G. E.

LaBarre

Bradizza

C. M.

(2024). Mechanisms of behavior change during alcohol treatment among negative affect drinkers: A time-varying effect model analysis using 84 consecutive days of ecological momentary assessment. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 38(1), 36–46. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000931

Negative Affect Mediates the Relationship Between Boredom Proneness and Posttreatment Alcohol Use Problems

Abstract

Keywords

Get full access to this article

References