The current concerns theory and permanently online, permanently connected (POPC) theoretical frameworks suggest that smartphones are used to address thoughts (especially socially related ones) requiring online access that arise during mind wandering. The permanently online, permanently connected mindset proposes that online vigilance (cognitive preoccupation with the online world) is related to increased smartphone use behavior. Results from a sample of 188 U.S. undergraduates demonstrated stronger relationships for online vigilance and iPhone recorded social smartphone use with spontaneous than with deliberate mind wandering. Moreover, online vigilance mediated the relationship between spontaneous mind wandering and social smartphone use, though not for those highest in trait mindfulness. Overall, in support of the POPC framework, results suggest that online vigilance and spontaneous mind wandering are both predictors and outcomes of higher social smartphone use. Future research could explore the extent to which spontaneous mind wandering consists of online related thoughts.
AndoneI.BłaszkiewiczK.EibesM.TrendafilovB.MontagC.MarkowetzA. (2016). How age and gender affect smartphone usage. In Proceedings of the 2016 ACM international joint conference on pervasive and ubiquitous computing: Adjunct (pp. 9–12). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/2968219.2971451
2.
AndrewsS.EllisD. A.ShawH.PiwekL. (2015). Beyond self-report: Tools to compare estimated and real-world smartphone use. PLoS One, 10(10), Article e0139004. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0139004
3.
Andrews-HannaJ. R.KaiserR. H.TurnerA. E.ReinebergA.GodinezD.DimidjianS.BanichM. (2013). A penny for your thoughts: Dimensions of self-generated thought content and relationships with individual differences in emotional wellbeing. Frontiers in Psychology, 4(1), 900. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00900
4.
AraujoT.WonnebergerA.NeijensP.de VreeseC. (2017). How much time do you spend online? Understanding and improving the accuracy of self-reported measures of internet use. Communication Methods and Measures, 11(3), 173–190. https://doi.org/10.1080/19312458.2017.1317337
5.
AruJ.RozgonjukD. (2022). The effect of smartphone use on mental effort, learning, and creativity. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 26(10), 821–823. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2022.07.002
BerntsenD.HoyleR. H.Munkholm MøllerD.RubinD. C. (2023). Digital daydreaming: Introducing the spontaneous smartphone checking scale. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 37(1), 147–160. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.4034
8.
BrosowskyN. P.SmithA. C.SmilekD.SeliP. (2022). On the relation between mind wandering, PTSD symptomology, and self-control. Consciousness and Cognition, 99(1), Article 103288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2022.103288
9.
CaoX.MasoodA.LuqmanA.AliA. (2018). Excessive use of mobile social networking sites and poor academic performance: Antecedents and consequences from stressor-strain-outcome perspective. Computers in Human Behavior, 85, 163–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.03.023
10.
CarolusA.BinderJ. F.MuenchR.SchmidtC.SchneiderF.BuglassS. L. (2019). Smartphones as digital companions: Characterizing the relationship between users and their phones. New Media & Society, 21(4), 914–938. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818817074
11.
CarriereJ. S.SeliP.SmilekD. (2013). Wandering in both mind and body: Individual differences in mind wandering and inattention predict fidgeting. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 67(1), 19–31. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031438
D’ArgembeauA. (2018). Mind wandering and self-referential thought. In The Oxford handbook of spontaneous thought (pp. 181–191). Oxford University Press.
14.
DuJ.KerkhofP.van KoningsbruggenG. M. (2021). The reciprocal relationships between social media self-control failure, mindfulness and wellbeing: A longitudinal study. PLoS One, 16(8), Article e0255648. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255648
15.
DuffyJ.ColeS. N. (2021). Functions of spontaneous and voluntary future thinking: Evidence from subjective ratings. Psychological Research, 85(4), 1583–1601. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-020-01338-9
16.
EdenA. L.JohnsonB. K.ReineckeL.GradyS. M. (2020). Media for coping during COVID-19 social distancing: Stress, anxiety, and psychological well-being. Frontiers in Psychology, 11(1), Article 577639. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.577639
17.
ElhaiJ. D.LevineJ. C.O’BrienK. D.ArmourC. (2018). Distress tolerance and mindfulness mediate relations between depression and anxiety sensitivity with problematic smartphone use. Computers in Human Behavior, 84, 477–484. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.03.026
GaynorN.FitzgeraldL. (2023). Mind-wandering and its relationship with psychological wellbeing and obsessive-compulsive symptomatology in the context of Covid-19. PsychologicalReports, Article 332941231203563. https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941231203563
21.
GeorgeD.MalleryM. (2010). SPSS for windows step by step: A simple guide and reference. Pearson.
22.
GiambraL. M. (1993). The influence of aging on spontaneous shifts of attention from external stimuli to the contents of consciousness. Experimental Gerontology, 28(4-5), 485–492. https://doi.org/10.1016/0531-5565(93)90073-M
23.
GirardeauJ. C.SperdutiM.BlondéP.PiolinoP. (2022). Where is my mind…? The link between mind wandering and prospective memory. Brain Sciences, 12(9), 1139. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12091139
24.
HalfmannA.MeierA.ReineckeL. (2021). Too much or too little messaging? Situational determinants of guilt about mobile messaging. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 26(2), 72–90. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcmc/zmaa018
25.
HalfmannA.MeierA.ReineckeL. (2023). Trapped between goal conflict and availability norm? How users’ mobile messaging behavior during task engagement influences negative self-conscious emotions. Journal of Media Psychology: Theories, Methods, and Applications, 36(1), 45–57. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000381
26.
HalfmannA.RiegerD. (2019). Permanently on call: The effects of social pressure on smartphone users’ self-control, need satisfaction, and well-being. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 24(4), 165–181. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcmc/zmz008
27.
HallauerC. J.RooneyE. A.BillieuxJ.HallB. J.ElhaiJ. D. (2022). Mindfulness mediates relations between anxiety with problematic smartphone use severity. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 16(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2022-1-4
28.
HayesA. F. (2022). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (Third).
29.
HefnerD.KnopK.KlimmtC. (2018). Being mindfully connected: Responding to the challenges of adolescents living in a POPC world. In VordererP.HefnerD.ReineckeL.KlimmtC. (Eds.), Permanently online, permanently connected: Living and communicating in a POPC world (pp. 176–187). Routledge.
30.
HitchamL.JacksonH.JamesJ ER. (2023). The relationship between smartphone use and smartphone addiction: An examination of logged and self-reported behavior in a pre-registered, two-wave sample. Computers in Human Behavior, 146, Article 107822. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2023.107822
31.
HollisR. B.WasC. A. (2016). Mind wandering, control failures, and social media distractions in online learning. Learning and Instruction, 42(1), 104–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.01.007
32.
IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows (2022). Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.
33.
JohannesN.MeierA.ReineckeL.EhlertS.SetiawanD. N.WalasekN.DienlinT.BuijzenM.VelingH. (2021). The relationship between online vigilance and affective well-being in everyday life: Combining smartphone logging with experience sampling. Media Psychology, 24(5), 581–605. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2020.1768122
34.
JohannesN.VelingH.DoraJ.MeierA.ReineckeL.BuijzenM. (2018). Mind wandering and mindfulness as mediators of the relationship between online vigilance and well-being. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 21(12), 761–767. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2018.0373
35.
JonesL. L.WurmL. H.NorvilleG. A.MullinsK. L. (2020). Sex differences in emoji use, familiarity, and valence. Computers in Human Behavior, 108, Article 106305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106305
36.
KaneM. J.GrossG. M.ChunC. A.SmeekensB. A.MeierM. E.SilviaP. J.KwapilT. R. (2017). For whom the mind wanders, and when, varies across laboratory and daily-life settings. Psychological Science, 28(9), 1271–1289. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617706086
37.
KeesmanM.AartsH.HäfnerM.PapiesE. K. (2017). Mindfulness reduces reactivity to food cues: Underlying mechanisms and applications in daily life. Current Addiction Reports, 4(2), 151–157. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-017-0134-2
38.
KertechianK. S.IsmailH. N. (2023). A positive view of excessive smartphone utilization and its relationship with other academic-related variables within the online course setting. Psychological Reports. https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941231183338
KlimmtC.HefnerD.ReineckeL.RiegerD.VordererP. (2018). The permanently online and permanently connected mind. Mapping the cognitive structures behind mobile Internet use. In VordererP.HefnerD.ReineckeL.KlimmtC. (Eds.), Permanently online, permanently connected. Living and communication in a POPC world (pp. 18–28). Routledge.
41.
KlingerE. (2013). Goal commitments and the content of thoughts and dreams: Basic principles. Frontiers in Psychology, 4(415), 415. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00415
42.
KohlsN.SauerS.WalachH. (2009). Facets of mindfulness – results of an online study investigating the Freiburg mindfulness inventory. Personality and Individual Differences, 46(2), 224–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.10.009
43.
KvavilashviliL.RummelJ. (2020). On the nature of everyday prospection: A review and theoretical integration of research on mind-wandering, future thinking, and prospective memory. Review of General Psychology, 24(3), 210–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/1089268020918843
44.
LavoieR.ZhengY. (2023). Smartphone use, flow and wellbeing: A case of Jekyll and Hyde. Computers in Human Behavior, 138, Article 107442. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107442
45.
LeeA. Y.HancockJ. T. (2024). Social media mindsets: A new approach to understanding social media use and psychological well-being. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 29(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcmc/zmad048
46.
LeeJ.WoodE.VogelN.SanthoshE.ChauhanP. K. (2023). Burn or balm? Exploring university students’ experiences with social media during the COVID-19 pandemic. PsychologicalReports, Article 332941231175068. https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941231175068
47.
Le RouxD. B.ParryD. A. (2022). Investigating predictors of online vigilance among university students. Information Technology & People, 35(1), 27–45. https://doi.org/10.1108/ITP-04-2020-0226
Marcusson-ClavertzD.KjellO. N. (2019). Psychometric properties of the spontaneous and deliberate mind wandering scales. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 35(6), 878–890. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000470
50.
Marty-DugasJ.RalphB. C.OakmanJ. M.SmilekD. (2018). The relation between smartphone use and everyday inattention. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 5(1), 46–62. https://doi.org/10.1037/cns0000131
51.
MeierA.BeyensI.SiebersT.PouwelsJ. L.ValkenburgP. M. (2023). Habitual social media and smartphone use are linked to task delay for some, but not all, adolescents. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 28(3). https://doi.org/10.1093/jcmc/zmad008
52.
MeierA.ReineckeL.MeltzerC. E. (2016). “Facebocrastination”? Predictors of using Facebook for procrastination and its effects on students’ well-being. Computers in Human Behavior, 64, 65–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.06.011
53.
MrazekM. D.PhillipsD. T.FranklinM. S.BroadwayJ. M.SchoolerJ. W. (2013). Young and restless: Validation of the mind wandering questionnaire (MWQ) reveals disruptive impact of mind wandering for youth. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 560. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00560
54.
MrazekM. D.SmallwoodJ.SchoolerJ. W. (2012). Mindfulness and mind wandering: Finding convergence through opposing constructs. Emotion, 12(3), 442–448. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026678
55.
MüllerM.SindermannC.RozgonjukD.MontagC. (2021). Mind wandering mediates the associations between neuroticism and conscientiousness, and tendencies towards smartphone use disorder. Frontiers in Psychology, 12(1), Article 661541. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.661541
56.
NaslundJ. A.BondreA.TorousJ.AschbrennerK. A. (2020). Social media and mental health: Benefits, risks, and opportunities for research and practice. Journal of Technology in Behavioral Science, 5(3), 245–257. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41347-020-00134-x
57.
OhmeJ.Vanden AbeeleM. M.Van GaeverenK.DurnezW.De MarezL. (2020). Staying informed and bridging “social distance”: Smartphone news use and mobile messaging behaviors of Flemish adults during the first weeks of the COVID-19 pandemic. Socius, 6(1), Article 2378023120950190. https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023120950190
58.
Ostojic-AitkensD.BrookerB.MillerC. J. (2019). Using ecological momentary assessments to evaluate extant measures of mind wandering. Psychological Assessment, 31(6), 817–827. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000701
59.
PillemerD. (2003). Directive functions of autobiographical memory: The guiding power of the specific episode. Memory, 11(2), 193–202. https://doi.org/10.1080/741938208
60.
ReganT.HarrisB.Van LoonM.NanavatyN.SchuelerJ.EnglerS.FieldsS. A. (2020). Does mindfulness reduce the effects of risk factors for problematic smartphone use? Comparing frequency of use versus self-reported addiction. Addictive Behaviors, 108(1), Article 106435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106435
61.
ReineckeL.GilbertA.EdenA. (2022). Self-regulation as a key boundary condition in the relationship between social media use and well-being. Current Opinion in Psychology, 45(1), Article 101296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.12.008
62.
ReineckeL.KlimmtC.MeierA.ReichS.HefnerD.Knop-HuelssK.RiegerD.VordererP. (2018). Permanently online and permanently connected: Development and validation of the online vigilance scale. PLoS One, 13(10), Article e0205384. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205384
63.
ReineckeL.TrepteS. (2014). Authenticity and well-being on social network sites: A two-wave longitudinal study on the effects of online authenticity and the positivity bias in SNS communication. Computers in Human Behavior, 30, 95–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.07.030
64.
RosenA. O.HolmesA. L.BalluerkaN.HidalgoM. D.GorostiagaA.Gómez-BenitoJ.Huedo-MedinaT. B. (2022). Is social media a new type of social support? Social media use in Spain during the COVID-19 pandemic: A mixed methods study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(7), 3952. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19073952
65.
RossM. Q.CampbellS. W. (2021). Thinking and feeling through mobile media and communication: A review of cognitive and affective implications. Review of Communication Research, 9, 147–166. https://doi.org/10.12840/ISSN.2255-4165.031
66.
RubyF. J.SmallwoodJ.SackurJ.SingerT. (2013). Is self-generated thought a means of social problem solving?Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 962. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00962
67.
SaadehH.SaadehM.AlmobaideenW.Al RefaeiA.ShewaikaniN.Al FayezR. Q.KhawaldahH.Abu-ShanabS.Al-HussainiM. (2021). Effect of COVID-19 quarantine on the sleep quality and the depressive symptom levels of university students in Jordan during the spring of 2020. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, Article 605676. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.605676
68.
SavciM.AysanF. (2016). Relationship between impulsivity, social media usage and loneliness. Educational Process: International Journal, 5(2), 106–115. https://doi.org/10.12973/edupij.2016.52.2
69.
SchneiderF. M.LutzS.HalfmannA.MeierA.ReineckeL. (2022). How and when do mobile media demands impact well-being? Explicating the integrative model of mobile media use and need experiences (IM3UNE). Mobile Media & Communication, 10(2), 251–271. https://doi.org/10.1177/20501579211054928
70.
SchneiderF. M.ReichS.ReineckeL. (2018). Methodological challenges of POPC for communication research. In VordererP.HefnerD.ReineckeL.KlimmtC. (Eds.), Permanently online, permanently connected: Living and communicating in a POPC world (pp. 29–39). Routledge.
71.
SeliP.BeatyR. E.CheyneJ. A.SmilekD.OakmanJ.SchacterD. L. (2018). How pervasive is mind wandering, really?Consciousness and Cognition, 66(1), 74–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2018.10.002
72.
SeliP.BeatyR. E.Marty-DugasJ.SmilekD. (2019). Depression, anxiety, and stress and the distinction between intentional and unintentional mind wandering. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 6(2), 163–170. https://doi.org/10.1037/cns0000182
73.
SeliP.CarriereJ. S.SmilekD. (2015). Not all mind wandering is created equal: Dissociating deliberate from spontaneous mind wandering. Psychological Research, 79(5), 750–758. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-014-0617-x
74.
SeliP.CarriereJ. S. A.ThomsonD. R.CheyneJ. A.MartensK. A. E.SmilekD. (2014). Restless mind, restless body. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 40(3), 660–668. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035260
75.
SeliP.RiskoE. F.SmilekD. (2016a). On the necessity of distinguishing between unintentional and intentional mind wandering. Psychological Science, 27(5), 685–691. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797616634068
76.
SeliP.RiskoE. F.SmilekD.SchacterD. L. (2016b). Mind wandering with and without intention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(8), 605–617. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.05.010
77.
SeliP.WammesJ. D.RiskoE. F.SmilekD. (2016c). On the relation between motivation and retention in educational contexts: The role of intentional and unintentional mind wandering. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 23(4), 1280–1287. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0979-0
78.
SewallC. J. R.BearT. M.MerrankoJ.RosenD. (2020). How psychosocial well-being and usage amount predict inaccuracies in retrospective estimates of digital technology use. Mobile Media & Communication, 8(3), 379–399. https://doi.org/10.1177/2050157920902830
79.
SewallC. J. R.ParryD. A. (2021). The role of depression in the discrepancy between estimated and actual smartphone use: A cubic response surface analysis. Technology, Mind, and Behavior, 2(2), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1037/tmb0000036
80.
ShawH.EllisD.GeyerK.DavidsonB.ZieglerF.SmithA. (2020). Quantifying smartphone “use”: Choice of measurement impacts relationships between “usage” and health. Technology, Mind, and Behavior, 1(2), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1037/tmb0000022
81.
SmallwoodJ. (2013). Distinguishing how from why the mind wanders: A process–occurrence framework for self-generated mental activity. Psychological Bulletin, 139(3), 519–535. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030010
82.
SmallwoodJ.SchoolerJ. W. (2015). The science of mind wandering: Empirically navigating the stream of consciousness. Annual Review of Psychology, 66(1), 487–518. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015331
83.
SmithA. C.BrosowskyN. P.CaronE. E.SeliP.SmilekD. (2023). Examining the relation between mind wandering and unhealthy eating behaviours. Personality and Individual Differences, 200(1), Article 111908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2022.111908
84.
SumuerE.KaşıkcıD. N. (2022). The role of smartphones in college students’ mind wandering during learning. Computers & Education, 190(7), Article 104616. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104616
85.
TsetsiE.RainsS. A. (2017). Smartphone internet access and use: Extending the digital divide and usage gap. Mobile Media & Communication, 5(3), 239–255. https://doi.org/10.1177/2050157917708329
86.
UniyalR.ShahnawazM. G. (2022). Wellbeing and problematic smartphone use: Serial mediation of mindfulness and self-compassion. Psychological Reports, 127(4), 1705–1726. https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941221141311
VolkmerS. A.LermerE. (2019). Unhappy and addicted to your phone? Higher mobile phone use is associated with lower well-being. Computers in Human Behavior, 93, 210–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.12.015
89.
VordererP.KrömerN.SchneiderF. M. (2016). Permanently online–Permanently connected: Explorations into university students’ use of social media and mobile smart devices. Computers in Human Behavior, 63, 694–703. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.05.085
WammesJ. D.SeliP.CheyneJ. A.BoucherP. O.SmilekD. (2016). Mind wandering during lectures II: Relation to academic performance. Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology, 2(1), 33–48. https://doi.org/10.1037/stl0000055
93.
WilmerH. H.ShermanL. E.CheinJ. M. (2017). Smartphones and cognition: A review of research exploring the links between mobile technology habits and cognitive functioning. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 605. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00605
94.
WunderZ. I.JonesL. L. (2023). Mindful metacognition: Attention, beliefs, and skills in the acceptance of experiences. Mindfulness, 14(12), 2917–2931. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-023-02254-w
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
