Hiding effort has become prevalent among adolescents; however, whether this behavior benefits or harms their social impression remains unclear. The study explored whether hiding effort is an effective impression management strategy to obtain high popularity, likeability, interpersonal trust, and cooperation intention from peers. Using hypothetical scenarios, Study 1 (N = 243) found that hiding effort led to lower popularity, likeability, interpersonal trust, and cooperation intention among adolescents. Study 2 (N = 176) replicated the findings of Study 1 and found that the hiding-effort adolescents did not realize these negative consequences. Furthermore, Study 2 revealed that authenticity mediated the effect of hiding effort on popularity, likeability, interpersonal trust, and cooperation intention. The findings provided theoretical and practical implications for educators and adolescents. Educators should foster environments where effort and authenticity are rewarded. Adolescents should understand the cost of hiding efforts from peers.
AlamT.UllahZ.AlDhaenF. S.AlDhaenE.AhmadN.ScholzM. (2021). Towards explaining knowledge hiding through relationship conflict, frustration, and irritability: The case of public sector teaching hospitals. Sustainability, 13(22), Article 12598. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132212598
2.
AlchinC. E.MachinT. M.MartinN.BurtonL. J. (2023). Authenticity and inauthenticity in adolescents: A scoping review. Adolescent Research Review, 9(2), 279–315. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-023-00218-8
3.
AltmanI.TaylorD. A. (1973). Social penetration: The development of interpersonal relationships. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
4.
BaileyE. R.MatzS. C.YouyouW.IyengarS. S. (2020). Authentic self-expression on social media is associated with greater subjective well-being. Nature Communications, 11(1), 4889–4899. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18539-w
BravoA.Ortega-RuizR.VeenstraR.EngelsM. C.RomeraE. M. (2022). Friendship selection and influence processes for popularity in early and mid-adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 94(1), 45–56. https://doi.org/10.1002/jad.12004
7.
ChengT. W.MillsK. L.PfeiferJ. H. (2024). Revisiting adolescence as a sensitive period for sociocultural processing. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 164, Article 105820. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105820
8.
CillessenA. H. N.MarksP. E. L. (2011). Conceptualizing and measuring popularity. In CillessenA. H. N.SchwartzD.MayeuxL. (Eds.), Popularity in the peer system (pp. 25–56). Guilford Press.
9.
CovingtonM. V.OmelichC. L. (1979). Effort: The double-edged sword in school achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 71(2), 169–182. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.71.2.169
10.
de VriesR. E.PronkJ.OlthofT.GoossensF. A. (2020). Getting along and/or getting ahead: Differential Hexaco personality correlates of likeability and popularity among adolescents. European Journal of Personality, 34(2), 245–261. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2243
11.
EmmerichA. I.KnollM.RigottiT. (2019). The authenticity of the others: How teammates’ authenticity relates to our well-being. Small Group Research, 51(2), 175–207. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046496419874877
12.
EriksonE. H. (1994). Identity: Youth and crisis. WW Norton & Company.
13.
FaulF.ErdfelderE.BuchnerA.LangA. G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41(4), 1149–1160. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149
14.
FergusonS. M.RyanA. M. (2019). It’s lonely at the top: Adolescent students' peer-perceived popularity and self-perceived social contentment. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 48(2), 341–358. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-018-0970-y
15.
GinoF.SezerO.HuangL. (2020). To be or not to be your authentic self? Catering to others’ preferences hinders performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 158, 83–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2020.01.003
16.
GoffmanE. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Doubleday.
17.
HarterS. (2002). Authenticity. In SnyderC. R.LopezJ. S. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology (pp. 382–394). Oxford University Press.
18.
HayesA. F. (2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. Guilford publications.
19.
HeyderA.KesselsU. (2017). Boys don’t work? On the psychological benefits of showing low effort in high school. Sex Roles, 77(1-2), 72–85. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0683-1
20.
JacksonC.NyströmA.-S. (2014). ‘Smart students get perfect scores in tests without studying much’: Why is an effortless achiever identity attractive, and for whom is it possible?Research Papers in Education, 30(4), 393–410. https://doi.org/10.1080/02671522.2014.970226
21.
JohnL. K.BaraszK.NortonM. I. (2016). Hiding personal information reveals the worst. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 113(4), 954–959. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1516868113
22.
JuvonenJ. (2000). The social functions of attributional face-saving tactics among early adolescents. Educational Psychology Review, 12(1), 15–32. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009080816191
23.
JuvonenJ.MurdockT. B. (1993). How to promote social approval: Effects of audience and achievement outcome on publicly communicated attributions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85(2), 365–376. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.85.2.365
24.
JuvonenJ.MurdockT. B. (1995). Grade-level differences in the social value of effort: Implication for self-presentation tactics of early adolescents. Child Development, 66(6), 1694–1705. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131904
25.
KelleyN. J.DavisW. E.DangJ.LiuL.WildschutT.SedikidesC. (2022). Nostalgia confers psychological wellbeing by increasing authenticity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 102, Article 104379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2022.104379
26.
KeselmanH. J.HubertyC. J.LixL. M.OlejnikS.CribbieR. A.DonahueB.LevinJ. R. (1998). Statistical practices of educational researchers: An analysis of their ANOVA, MANOVA, and ANCOVA analyses. Review of Educational Research, 68(3), 350–386. https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430680033
27.
KimT.-Y.DavidE. M.ChenT.LiangY. (2023). Authenticity or self-enhancement? Effects of self-presentation and authentic leadership on trust and performance. Journal of Management, 49(3), 944–973. https://doi.org/10.1177/01492063211063807
28.
KunA. (1977). Development of the magnitude-covariation and compensation schemata in ability and effort attributions of performance. Child Development, 48(3), 862–873. https://doi.org/10.2307/1128335
29.
LaursenB.VeenstraR. (2021). Toward understanding the functions of peer influence: A summary and synthesis of recent empirical research. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 31(4), 889–907. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12606
30.
LearyM. R.KowalskiR. M. (1990). Impression management: A literature review and two-component model. Psychological Bulletin, 107(1), 34–47. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.107.1.34
31.
LentonA. P.SlabuL.SedikidesC.PowerK. (2013). I feel good, therefore I am real: Testing the causal influence of mood on state authenticity. Cognition and Emotion, 27(7), 1202–1224. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2013.778818
32.
LsaneT.SweigardP.CzoppA.HowardW.BurnsM. J. (1999). The effects of student academic presentation on perception of gender and sociability. North American Journal of Psychology, 1(2), 173–188. https://nsuworks.nova.edu/cps_facarticles/1077
33.
LuoM.HancockJ. T. (2020). Self-disclosure and social media: Motivations, mechanisms and psychological well-being. Current Opinion in Psychology, 31(SI), 110–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.08.019
34.
McHaleF.NgK.TaylorS.BengoecheaE.NortonC.O'SheaD.WoodsC. (2022). A systematic literature review of peer-led strategies for promoting physical activity levels of adolescents. Health Education and Behavior, 49(1), 41–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/10901981211044988
35.
MeehanZ. M.HubbardJ. A.MooreC. C.MlawerF. (2024). Susceptibility to peer influence in adolescents: Associations between psychophysiology and behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 36(1), 69–81. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579422000967
36.
MeeusW. (2011). The study of adolescent identity formation 2000-2010: A review of longitudinal research. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21(1), 75–94. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00716.x
37.
MeijsN.CillessenA. H.ScholteR. H.SegersE.SpijkermanR. (2010). Social intelligence and academic achievement as predictors of adolescent popularity. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39(1), 62–72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-008-9373-9
38.
RagelienėT. (2016). Links of adolescents’ identity development and relationship with peers: A systematic literature review. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 25(2), 97–105. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-016-0044-8
39.
RobertsA. R.LevineE. E.SezerO. (2021). Hiding success. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 120(5), 1261–1286. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000322
40.
RudolphK. D. (2021). Understanding peer relationships during childhood and adolescence through the lens of social motivation. Understanding peer relationships during childhood and adolescence through the lens of social motivation (8, pp. 105–151). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.adms.2020.08.001
41.
RyanA. M.ShimS. S.MakaraK. A. (2013). Changes in academic adjustment and relational self-worth across the transition to middle school. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(9), 1372–1384. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9984-7
42.
SaidahB.LouvetE.PansuP. (2019). Are students who make an effort perceived as successful or just liked by their teachers?Social Psychology of Education, 22, 405–419. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-019-09481-x
43.
SeokD.DoomJ. R. (2022). Adolescents' social support networks and long-term psychosocial outcomes. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 39(12), 3775–3798. https://doi.org/10.1177/02654075221109021
SohmerO. R. (2020). The experience of the authentic self: A cooperative inquiry. Journal of Humanistic Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167820952339
46.
SteinmetzJ.SezerO.SedikidesC. (2017). Impression mismanagement: People as inept self-presenters. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 11(6), Article e12321. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12321
47.
StrattonS. J. (2021). Population research: Convenience sampling strategies. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, 36(4), 373–374. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049023X21000649
48.
TackettJ. L.ReardonK. W.FastN. J.JohnsonL.KangS. K.LangJ. W. B.OswaldF. L. (2022). Understanding the leaders of tomorrow: The need to study leadership in adolescence. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 18(4), 829–842. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916221118536
49.
ThomaesS.SedikidesC.van den BosN.HuttemanR.ReijntjesA. (2017). Happy to be “me?” Authenticity, psychological need satisfaction, and subjective well-being in adolescence. Child Development, 88(4), 1045–1056. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12867
50.
van den BergY. H. M.LansuT. A. M.CillessenA. H. N. (2020). Preference and popularity as distinct forms of status: A meta-analytic review of 20 years of research. Journal of Adolescence, 84, 78–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2020.07.010
51.
VeenstraR.Laninga-WijnenL. (2023). The prominence of peer interactions, relationships, and networks in adolescence and early adulthood. In APA handbook of adolescent and young adult development (pp. 225–241). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000298-014
52.
VijayakumarN.FlournoyJ. C.MillsK. L.ChengT. W.MobasserA.FlanneryJ. E.AllenN. B.PfeiferJ. H. (2020). Getting to know me better: An fMRI study of intimate and superficial self-disclosure to friends during adolescence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 118(5), 885–899. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000182
53.
VijayakumarN.PfeiferJ. H. (2020). Self-disclosure during adolescence: Exploring the means, targets, and types of personal exchanges. Current Opinion in Psychology, 31(SI), 135–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.08.005
54.
YuanY.LiuP.LiuB.CuiZ. (2024). Small talk and knowledge sharing: A moderated dual-facilitating pathway model based on interpersonal trust and perceived similarity. Journal of Knowledge Management, 28(6), 1538–1565. https://doi.org/10.1108/JKM-02-2023-0130
55.
ZhangX.PomerantzE. M.QinL.LogisH.RyanA. M.WangM. (2018). Characteristics of likability, perceived popularity, and admiration in the early adolescent peer system in the United States and China. Developmental Psychology, 54(8), 1568–1581. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000544
56.
ZhaoL.HeymanG. D. (2018). Hiding effort to gain a competitive advantage: Evidence from China. International Journal of Psychology, 53(3), 228–236. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12285
57.
ZookJ. M.RussottiJ. M. (2012). Academic self-presentation strategies and popularity in middle school. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 33(6), 765–785. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431612467229
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
