This study was designed to examine the relationship of sport classification and gender to perceptual style. 102 male and female undergraduate students from open-skilled, closed-skilled and nonathletic groups were administered the Rod and Frame Test and the Embedded Figures Test. Analysis of variance indicated men to be more field independent than women on the Rod and Frame Test, while there were no gender differences on the Embedded Figures Test. Athletes performing open and closed skills scored significantly more field independent on the Rod and Frame Test than the nonathletes. There were no significant differences among the groups on the Embedded Figures Test. No correlation between the two measures of perceptual style was obtained.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
ArbuthnotT. (1972) Cautionary note on measurement of field independence.Perceptual and Motor Skills, 35, 479–488.
2.
BarrellG. V., & TrippeH. R. (1975) Field dependence and physical ability.Perceptual and Motor Skills, 41, 216–218.
3.
BeitelP. A. (1980) Multivariate relationships among visual-perceptual attributes and gross motor tasks with different environmental demands.Journal of Motor Behavior, 12, 29–40.
4.
BrovermanD. M., KlaiberE. L., KobavashiY., & VogelW. (1968) Roles of activation and inhibition in sex differences in cognitive abilities.Psychological Review, 75, 23–50.
5.
DreyerA. S., DreyerC. A., & NebelkopfE. B. (1971) Portable Rod and Frame Test as a measure of cognitive style in kindergarten children.Perceptual and Motor Skills, 33, 775–781.
6.
DrouinD., TalbotS., & GouletC. (1986) Cognitive styles of French Canadian athletes.Perceptual and Motor Skills, 63, 1139–1142.
7.
FittsP. M. (1965) Factors in complex skill learning. In GlaserR. (Ed.), Training research and education.New York: Wiley. Pp. 150–165.
8.
FleishmanE. A., & RichS. (1963) Role of kinesthetic and spatial-visual abilities in perceptual-motor learning.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 66, 6–11.
9.
GentileA. M., HigginsJ. R., MillerE. A., & RosenB. M. (1975) The structure of motor tasks. Paper presented at Actes du 7 Symposium Canadien en Apprentissage Psychomoteur et Psychologie du Sport. In BardC., PlenryM., & SalmelaJ. (Eds.), Movement 7: Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Canadian Psychomotor and Sports Psychology Symposium.Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. Pp. 11–28.
10.
GruenA. (1955) The relation of dancing experience and personality to perception.Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 69, No. 14 (whole No. 399).
11.
HoffmanS. J., InwoldC. H., & KollerJ. A. (1983) A taxonomic analysis of children's performance.Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 54, 41–47.
12.
KaneJ. E. (1972) Personality, body concept and performance. In KaneJ. E. (Ed.), Psychological aspects of physical education and sport.London: Western Printing Services. Pp. 93–127.
13.
KnappB. (1964) Skill in sport.London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
14.
KriegerJ. C. (1962) The influence of figure-ground perception on spatial adjustment in tennis. Unpublished master's thesis, Univer. of California, Los Angeles.
15.
LaszloJ. I., & BairstowP. J. (1985) Perceptual-motor behavior, developmental assessment and therapy.New York: Praeger.
16.
LindquistE. L. (1978) Correlation between an embedded figures test and tennis rank order at three levels of skill.Perceptual and Motor Skills, 47, 1143–1146.
17.
LoaderE. C., EdwardsS. W., & HenschenK. P. (1982) Field dependent/field independent characteristics of male and female basketball players.Perceptual and Motor Skills, 55, 883–890.
18.
LunneborgP. W. (1982) Sex differences in self-assessed, everyday spatial abilities.Perceptual and Motor Skills, 55, 200–202.
19.
MacGillivaryW. W. (1979) Perceptual style and ball skill acquisition.Research Quarterly, 50, 222–229.
20.
McLeodB. (1985) Field dependence as a factor in sports with a preponderance of open or closed skills.Perceptual and Motor Skills, 60, 369–370.
21.
MeekF., & SkubicV. (1971) Spatial perception of highly skilled and poorly skilled females.Perceptual and Motor Skills, 33, 1309–1310.
22.
ParamoM. F., & TinajeroC. (1990) Field dependence/independence and performance in school: an argument against the neutrality of cognitive style.Perceptual and Motor Skills, 70, 1079–1087.
23.
PargmanD. (1976) Visual disembedding and injury in college athletes.Perceptual and Motor Skills, 42, 762.
24.
PargmanD. (1977) Perceptual cognitive ability as a function of race, sex and academic achievement in college athletes.International Journal of Sport Psychology, 8, 79–91.
25.
PoultonE. C. (1957) On prediction in skilled movements.Psychological Bulletin, 54, 467–478.
26.
RavinS., & NabelN. (1990) Field dependence/independence and concentration as psychological characteristics of basketball players.Perceptual and Motor Skills, 66, 831–836.
27.
RobbM. D. (1972) The Dynamics of motor skill acquisition.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
28.
RobertsonR. J., & AlfanoP. (1985) Field dependence as a limiting factor solving a complex learning problem.Perceptual and Motor Skills, 61, 276–278.
29.
RobinsonD. L. (1983) Structure of Witkin's Embedded Figures Test.Perceptual and Motor Skills, 57, 119–125.
30.
SchmidtR. A. (1991) Motor learning and performance: from principles to practice.Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
31.
ShermanJ. A. (1967) Problem of sex differences in space perception and aspects of intellectual functioning.Psychological Review, 74, 290–299.
32.
SloanM. R. (1976) Field dependence and psychomotor style. In Proceedings of the International Seminar on Motor Learning.Israel: Wingate Institute. Pp. 49–64.
33.
Spaeth-ArnoldR. K. (1981) Developing sports skills: a dynamic interplay of task, learner and teacher.Motor Skills: Theory into Practice, Monograph, 2, 1–81.
34.
SvinickiJ. G., BunegaardJ., SchwensohnC. H., & WestigorD. J. (1974) Physical activity and visual field dependence.Perceptual and Motor Skills, 39, 1237–1238.
35.
SwinnenS. (1984) Field dependence-independence as a factor in learning complex motor skills and underlying sex difference.International Journal of Sports Psychology, 15, 236–249.
36.
WachtelP. L. (1972) Dependence and psychological differentiation and reexamination.Perceptual and Motor Skills, 35, 179–189.
37.
WhitingH. T. A. (1969) Acquiring ball skill.Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger.
38.
WilliamsJ. M. (1980) Differential figure-ground perception in classified and unclassified fencers.Journal of Sports Psychology, 2, 74–78.
39.
WitkinH. A., & GoodenoughD. R. (1981) Essence and origins of cognitive styles: field dependence and field independence. (Psychological Issues Monograph 51) New York: International Universities Press.
40.
WitkinH. A., LewisH. B., HertzmanM., MachoverK., MeissnerP., & WapnerS. (1954) Personality through perception.New York: Harper.
41.
WitkinH. A., OltmanP. K., RaskinE., & KarpS. A. (1971) A manual for the Embedded Figures Test.Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
