Psychological factors related to injury were investigated in 115 competitive gymnasts. The subjects were administered the Profile of Mood States-Bipolar Form (POMS-BI) and Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2). Direct discriminant function analysis showed that the best predictors for distinguishing between gymnasts with four or more injuries and those with fewer than four injuries were CSAI-2 Cognitive Anxiety and the POMS-BI Composed-Anxious and Energetic-Tired scores. The more-injured gymnasts were more anxious and tired, and reported higher scores on the CSAI-2 Cognitive Anxiety scale. Males could be differentiated from females by scores on the CSAI-2 Self-confidence and the POMS-BI Composed-Anxious, Confident-Unsure, Energetic-Tired, and Clearheaded-Confused scales. The female gymnasts were more anxious, unsure, tired, and confused, and reported lower levels of CSAI-2 Self-confidence. The findings were interpreted as further evidence of the anxiety-injury link in athletes.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AllawyM. (1983) Anxiety in Egyptian athletes. In OrlickT., PartingtonJ. T., & SalmelaJ. H. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Fifth World Sport Psychology Congress.Ottawa, Canada: Coaching Association of Canada. Pp. 99–100.
2.
AndersenM. B., and WilliamsJ. M. (1988) A model of stress and athletic injury: prediction and prevention.Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 10, 294–306.
3.
BondJ. W., MillerB. P., and ChrisfieldP. M. (1988) Psychological prediction of injury in elite swimmers.International Journal of Sports Medicine, 9, 345–348.
4.
BrownG. (1974) Meaning, measurement and stress of life events. In DohrenwendB. S., & DohrenwendB. P. (Eds.), Stressful life events: their nature and effects.New York: Wiley. Pp. 217–243.
5.
CaineD., CochraneB., CaineC., and ZemperE. (1989) An epidemiologic investigation of injuries affecting young competitive female gymnasts.American Journal of Sports Medicine, 17, 811–820.
6.
ClarkeK., and BuckleyW. (1980) Women's injuries in collegiate sports.American Journal of Sports Medicine, 8, 187–191.
7.
CrossmanJ., and JamiesonJ. (1985) Differences in perceptions of seriousness and disrupting effects of athletic injury as viewed by athletes and their trainer.Perceptual and Motor Skills, 61, 1131–1134.
8.
EichmanW. J. (1978) Review of the Profile of Mood States. In BurosO. K. (Ed.), The eighth mental measurements yearbook.Highland Park, NJ: Gryphon. Pp. 1016–1018.
9.
GarrickJ. G., and RequaR. K. (1980) Epidemiology of women's gymnastics injuries.American Journal of Sports Medicine, 8, 261–264.
10.
IevlevaL., and OrlickT. (1991) Mental links to enhanced healing: an exploratory study.The Sport Psychologist, 5, 25–40.
11.
KerrG., and FowlerB. (1988) The relationship between psychological factors and sports injuries.Sports Medicine, 6, 127–134.
12.
KerrG., and MindenH. (1988) Psychological factors related to the occurrence of athletic injuries.Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 10, 167–173.
13.
KoltG. S., and KirkbyR. J. (1993) Epidemiology of women's gymnastic injuries. In TenenbaumG., & Raz-LiebermannT. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Second Maccabiah-Wingate International Congress on Sport and Coaching Sciences.Netanya, Israel: Wingate Institute for Physical Education and Coaching. Pp. 241–254.
14.
KraneV., & WilliamsJ. (1987) Performance and somatic anxiety, cognitive anxiety, and confidence changes prior to competition.Journal of Sport Behavior, 10, 47–56.
15.
LirggC. D. (1991) Gender differences in self-confidence in physical activity: a meta-analysis of recent studies.Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13, 294–310.
16.
LorrM., McNairD. M. (1982). Profile of Mood States—Bipolar Form (POMS-BI).San Diego, CA: Educational & Industrial Testing Service.
17.
LowryC. B., and LeVeauB. F. (1982) A retrospective study of gymnastic injuries to competitors and noncompetitors in private clubs.American Journal of Sports Medicine, 10, 237–239.
18.
MartensR., BurtonD., VealeyR. S., BumpL. A., and SmithD. E. (1990) Development and validation of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2. In MartensR., VealeyR. S., & BurtonD. (Eds.), Competitive anxiety in sport.Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Pp. 117–213.
19.
MayJ. R., and SiebG. E. (1987) Athletic injuries: psychological factors in the onset, sequelae, rehabilitation, and prevention. In MayJ. R., & AskenM. J. (Eds.), Sport psychology: the psychological health of the athlete.New York: PMA Publ. Pp. 157–185.
20.
McAuleyE., HudashG., ShieldsK., AlbrightJ. P., GarrickJ., RequaR., and WallaceR. K. (1987) Injuries in women's gymnastics: the state of the art.American Journal of Sports Medicine, 15, S124–S131.
21.
McDonaldD., MaddenC. C., and KirkbyR. J. (1989) Mood states of young middle-distance runners. In GiamC. K., ChookK. K., & TehK. C. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Seventh World Congress in Sport Psychology.Singapore: International Society of Sport Psychology. Pp. 121–122.
22.
MillerT. W., VaughnM. P., and MillerJ. M. (1990) Clinical issues and treatment strategies in stress-oriented athletes.Sports Medicine, 9, 370–379.
23.
NidefferR. M. (1983) The injured athlete: psychological factors in treatment.Orthopedic Clinics of North America, 14, 372–385.
24.
PooleC., HenschenK. P., SchultzB., GordinR., and HillJ. (1986) A longitudinal investigation of the psychological profiles of elite collegiate female athletes according to performance level. In UnestahlL. E. (Ed.), Proceedings of the Sixth World Congress in Sport Psychology.Copenhagen, Denmark: VEJE Publ. Pp. 65–72.
25.
SimonJ. A., and MartensR. (1979) Children's anxiety in sport and nonsport evaluative activities.Journal of Sport Psychology, 1, 160–169.
26.
SpielbergerC. D., GorsuchR. L., and LusheneR. E. (1970). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory.Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
27.
TabachnickB. G., and FidellL. S. (1989). Using multivariate statistics. (2nd ed.) New York: HarperCollins.
28.
VealeyR. S. (1990) Advancements in competitive anxiety research: use of the Sport Competition Anxiety Test and the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2.Anxiety Research, 2, 243–261.
WeckowiczT. (1978) Review of the Profile of Mood States. In BurosO. K. (Ed.), The eighth mental measurements yearbook.Highland Park, NJ: Gryphon. Pp. 1018–1019.
