Background: Motor skill development in early childhood is a critical determinant of later physical, cognitive, and social outcomes. Although motor imagery (MI) training is recognized as an effective approach to enhancing motor performance, its application in preschool children has been scarcely investigated. Purpose: To assess the effect of MI training on motor skills in preschool children. Research Design: Randomized controlled trial with three groups: MI group (MIG; n = 16), physical activity group (PAG; n = 15), and control group (CG; n = 15). Study Sample: 46 children (23 females; 23 males; age = 5.4 ± 0.3 years) from the same preschool. Data Collection and/or Analysis: The participants were evaluated at baseline and after the intervention. They all completed the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (M-ABC-2) to assess motor skills. Results: MI training led to significant improvements in manual dexterity, ball skills, and balance compared to the CG and the physical activity group PAG. Conclusions: MI is a promising approach for enhancing motor skill development in preschool settings.
AdolphK. E.HochJ. E. (2020). The importance of motor skills for development. Nestle Nutrition Institute workshop series, 95(1), 136–144. https://doi.org/10.1159/000511511
2.
AsaS. K. D. P.MeloM. C. S.PiemonteM. E. P. (2014). Effects of mental and physical practice on a finger opposition task among children. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 85(3), 308–315. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2014.931557
3.
AvanzinoL.GueugneauN.BisioA.RuggeriP.PapaxanthisC.BoveM. (2015). Motor cortical plasticity induced by motor learning through mental practice. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 9, 105. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00105
4.
BahmaniM.BabakM.LandW. M.HowardJ. T.DiekfussJ. A.AbdollahipourR. (2021). Children's motor imagery modality dominance modulates the role of attentional focus in motor skill learning. Human Movement Science, 75, Article 102742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2020.102742
5.
BehrendtF.ZumbrunnenV.BremL.SuicaZ.GäumannS.ZillerC.GerthU.Schuster-AmftC. (2021). Effect of motor imagery training on motor learning in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(18), 9467. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189467
BrianA.GetchellN.TrueL.De MeesterA.StoddenD. F. (2020). Reconceptualizing and operationalizing seefeldt's proficiency barrier: Applications and future directions. Applications and future directions. Sports Medicine, 50(11), 1889–1900. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-020-01332-6
8.
ButsonM. L.HydeC.SteenbergenB.WilliamsJ. (2014). Assessing motor imagery using the hand rotation task: Does performance change across childhood?Human Movement Science, 35, 50–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2014.03.013
9.
CameronC. E.CottoneE. A.MurrahW. M.GrissmerD. W. (2016). How are motor skills linked to children's school performance and academic achievement?Child Development Perspectives, 10(2), 93–98. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12168
10.
CecchiniJ. A.Fernández-LosaJ. L.PallasáM. (2016). La precisión del movimiento imaginado y la recepción de balón en niños. Revista Internacional de Medicina y Ciencias de la Actividad Física y del Deporte/International Journal of Medicine and Science of Physical Activity and Sport, 16(62), 297–315.
11.
DiamondA.LeeK. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science, 333(6045), 959–964. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1204529
12.
DoussoulinA.RehbeinL. (2011). Motor imagery as a tool for motor skill training in children. Motricidade, 7(3), 37–43. https://doi.org/10.6063/motricidade.131
13.
FaulF.ErdfelderE.LangA. G.BuchnerA. (2007). G* power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175–191. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03193146
14.
FerrayeM. U.DebûB.HeilL.CarpenterM.BloemB. R.ToniI. (2014). Using motor imagery to study the neural substrates of dynamic balance. PLoS One, 9(3), Article e91183. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0091183
15.
FrankC.KlueverJ.SimonsmeierB. A. (2024). Imagery training of motor actions in children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 17(2), 1356–1377. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984x.2023.2167225
16.
FunkM.BruggerP.WilkeningF. (2005). Motor processes in children's imagery: The case of mental rotation of hands. Developmental Science, 8(5), 402–408. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2005.00428.x
17.
Ghayour NajafabadiM.SaghaeiB.ShariatA.IngleL.Babazadeh-ZaviehS. S.ShojaeiM.DaneshfarA. (2022). Validity and reliability of the movement assessment battery second edition test in children with and without motor impairment: A prospective cohort study. Annals of Medicine and Surgery, 77, Article 103672. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amsu.2022.103672
18.
GkintoniE.AntonopoulouH.SortwellA.HalkiopoulosC. (2025). Challenging cognitive load theory: The role of educational neuroscience and artificial intelligence in redefining learning efficacy. Brain Sciences, 15(2), 203. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15020203
19.
GliddenH. K. (2009). Tracker effector-specific and motor planning signals in human frontal and parietal cortices: Relevance for goal-directed action and neural prosthetics. Doctoral dissertation. California Institute of Technology.
20.
GrangeonM.GuillotA.ColletC. (2011). Postural control during visual and kinesthetic motor imagery. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 36(1), 47–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10484-011-9145-2
21.
GuarneraM.PelleroneM.CommodariE.ValentiG. D.BuccheriS. L. (2019). Mental images and school learning: A longitudinal study on children. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2034. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02034
22.
GuilbertJ.FernandezJ. (2023). Best practice for improving children’s and adolescents’ sport skills with motor imagery. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984x.2023.2289124
23.
GuilbertJ.JouenF.LehalleH.MolinaM. (2013). Motor imagery and simulation of action in children. LAnnee psychologique, 113(3), 459–488. https://doi.org/10.3917/anpsy.133.0459
24.
GuillotA.ColletC.NguyenV. A.MalouinF.RichardsC.DoyonJ. (2008). Functional neuroanatomical networks associated with expertise in motor imagery. NeuroImage, 41(4), 1471–1483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.03.042
25.
GuillotA.Di RienzoF.MacIntyreT.MoranA.ColletC. (2012). Imagining is not doing but involves specific motor commands: A review of experimental data related to motor inhibition. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 247. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2012.00247
26.
HatchiV.NicolasR. (2023). Apprentissage par observation combiné à l’imagerie motrice: influence du type de modèle vidéo sur la performance du lancer-franc au basket-ball chez des collégiens. Staps, 139(1), 57–73. https://doi.org/10.3917/sta.pr1.0054
27.
HendersonS. E.SugdenD. A.BarnettA. L. (2007). Movement assessment battery for children. Second Edition. The Psychological Corporation.
28.
HerrmannC.BretzK.KühnisJ.SeeligH.KellerR.FerrariI. (2021). Connection between social relationships and basic motor competencies in early childhood. Children, 8(1), 53. https://doi.org/10.3390/children8010053
29.
JeannerodM. (2001). Neural simulation of action: A unifying mechanism for motor cognition. NeuroImage, 14(1 Pt 2), S103–S109. https://doi.org/10.1006/nimg.2001.0832
30.
KulkarniM. A.RawalV. T. (2022). Effectiveness of mental practice on balance in normal young adults. Indian Journal of Physical Therapy and Research, 4(1), 30–35. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijptr.ijptr_54_21
31.
KuzikN.NaylorP. J.SpenceJ. C.CarsonV. (2020). Movement behaviours and physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development in preschool-aged children: Cross-sectional associations using compositional analyses. PLoS One, 15(8), Article e0237945. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237945
LebonF.GueugneauN.PapaxanthisC. (2013). Modèles internes et imagerie motrice. Movement & Sport Sciences-Science & Motricité, 82(82), 51–61. https://doi.org/10.1051/sm/20103092
34.
LópezF.MenezM.Hernández‐GuzmánL. (2005). Sustained attention during learning activities: An observational study with pre‐school children. Early Child Development and Care, 175(2), 131–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/0300443042000230384
MatvienkoO.Ahrabi-FardI. (2010). The effects of a 4-week after-school program on motor skills and fitness of kindergarten and first-grade students. American Journal of Health Promotion, 24(5), 299–303. https://doi.org/10.4278/ajhp.08050146
37.
MohamedE. K.El-TalawyH. A.AbdelazeimF. H.ElshafeyM. A. (2024). Impact of mental practice training on balance and trunk endurance in children with hemiparesis: A randomized controlled trial (pp. 10). SPORT TK-Revista EuroAmericana de Ciencias del Deporte.
38.
NikitinaG. V.BraginaT. V. (2024). Specifics of the development of fine motor skills in preschool children for mastering preliminary writing skills. Review of Pedagogical Research, 6(2), 93–98. https://doi.org/10.58224/2687-0428-2024-6-2-93-98
39.
PeyreH. (2018). Trajectoires développementales des habiletés en motricité fine pendant la période d’âge préscolaire: la cohorte EDEN. French Journal of Psychiatry, 1, S26–S27. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2590-2415(19)30063-7
40.
PitchfordN. J.PapiniC.OuthwaiteL. A.GullifordA. (2016). Fine motor skills predict maths ability better than they predict reading ability in the early primary school years. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 783. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00783
41.
PuyjarinetF. (2019). Principes et intérêts de la pratique de l’imagerie motrice en rééducation psychomotrice. Thérapie Psychomotrice et Recherches, 186(2), 260–273. https://doi.org/10.3917/tpr.186.0260
42.
RuffinoC.PapaxanthisC.LebonF. (2017). Neural plasticity during motor learning with motor imagery practice: Review and perspectives. Neuroscience, 341, 61–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.11.023
43.
ShadmehrR.KrakauerJ. W. (2008). A computational neuroanatomy for motor control. Experimental Brain Research, 185(3), 359–381. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-008-1280-5
44.
SimonsmeierB. A.AndronieM.BueckerS.FrankC. (2021). The effects of imagery interventions in sports: A meta-analysis. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 14(1), 186–207. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984x.2020.1780627
45.
SmithD.WrightC.AllsoppA.WestheadH. (2007). It's all in the mind: PETTLEP-based imagery and sports performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 19(1), 80–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200600944132
46.
SpruijtS.van der KampJ.SteenbergenB. (2015). Current insights in the development of children’s motor imagery ability. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 787. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00787
47.
TakazonoP. S.TeixeiraL. A. (2018). Effect of association of imagery and physical practice on children’s motor learning. Revista Brasileira de Cineantropometria & Desempenho Humano, 20(5), 363–372. https://doi.org/10.5007/1980-0037.2018v20n5p363
48.
TaktekK.ZinsserN.St-JohnB. (2008). Visual versus kinesthetic mental imagery: Efficacy for the retention and transfer of a closed motor skill in young children. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale, 62(3), 174–187. https://doi.org/10.1037/1196-1961.62.3.174
49.
TuranM. B.DisçekenO. (2019). The effects of cognitive learning and imagination training on the balances of the 14-16 years old handball players. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 7(1), 10–16. https://doi.org/10.11114/jets.v7i1.3834
50.
VeraksaN.GavrilovaM.VeraksaA. (2022). “Complete the drawing!”: the relationship between imagination and executive functions in children. Education Sciences, 12(2), 103. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci12020103
51.
WilliamsH. G.MonsmaE. V. (2017). Assessment of gross motor development. In Psychoeducational assessment of preschool children (pp. 397–464). Routledge.
52.
WolpertD. M.GhahramaniZ. (2000). Computational principles of movement neuroscience. Nature Neuroscience, 3(Suppl), 1212–1217. https://doi.org/10.1038/81497
53.
World Medical Association. (2013). World medical association declaration of Helsinki: Ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA, 310(20), 2191–2194. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.281053
54.
WuangY. P.SuJ. H.SuC. Y. (2012). Reliability and responsiveness of the movement assessment battery for children–second edition test in children with developmental coordination disorder. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 54(2), 160–165. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.2011.04177.x
55.
YanagiharaD. (2014). Role of the cerebellum in postural control. The Journal of Physical Fitness and Sports Medicine, 3(2), 169–172. https://doi.org/10.7600/jpfsm.3.169
56.
ZengN.AyyubM.SunH.WenX.XiangP.GaoZ. (2017). Effects of physical activity on motor skills and cognitive development in early childhood: A systematic review. BioMed Research International, 2017(1), Article 2760716. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/2760716
57.
ZhangL. W.MaQ. W.OrlickT.ZitzelsbergerL. (1992). The effect of mental-imagery training on performance enhancement with 7–10-year-old children. The Sport Psychologist, 6(3), 230–214. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.6.3.230
