The affective experience during and after exercise helps determine motivation, commitment, and adherence to sports. Choice reaction time (RT) is critical in decision-making and sports performance. In this within-subjects laboratory experiment, we scrutinized core affect and choice RT in 18 male adolescent basketball players during exercise sessions performed to voluntary exhaustion and during a control condition. The adolescents performed choice RT tasks in one of two exercise conditions and in the control session. Participants’ feeling states differed between exercise and control sessions and decreased slightly even after moderate exercise intensity. Core affect also declined as the workload increased, but it remained pleasant-activated in all conditions. The RT errors increased at the peak exercise intensity. These results suggest that while high-intensity training might negatively affect young athletes’ feeling states and impair their decision-making, their core affect remained positive, with large inter-individual variability. We discuss the practical implications of these results in adolescents’ sports.
AndoS.KimuraT.HamadaT.KokubuM.MoritaniT.OdaS. (2005). Increase in RT for the peripheral visual field during exercise above the ventilatory threshold. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 94(4), 461–467. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-005-1330-7
2.
BenjaminC. C.RowlandsA.ParfittG. (2012). Patterning of affective responses during a graded exercise test in children and adolescents. Pediatric Exercise Science, 24(2), 275–288. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.24.2.275
3.
BlanchardC. M.RodgersW. M.SpenceJ. C.CourneyaK. S. (2001). Feeling state responses to acute exercise of high and low intensity. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 4(1), 30–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1440-2440(01)80005-0
4.
BolmontB.ThullierF.AbrainiJ. H. (2000). Relationships between mood states and performances in RT, psychomotor ability, and mental efficiency during a 31-day gradual decompression in a hypobaric chamber from sea level to 8848 m equivalent altitude. Physiology & Behavior, 71(5), 469–476. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0031-9384(00)00362-0
5.
CiconeZ. S.HolmesC. J.FedewaM. V.MacDonaldH. V.EscoM. R. (2019). Age-based prediction of maximal heart rate in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 90(3), 417–428. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2019.1615605
6.
DaSilvaS. G.GuidettiL.BuzzacheraC. F.ElsangedyH. M.KrinskiK.De CamposW.GossF. L.BaldariC. (2011). Psychophysiological response to self-paced treadmill and overground exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 43(6), 1114–1124. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e318205874c
7.
DavrancheK.AudiffrenM.DenjeanA. (2006). A distributional analysis of the effect of physical exercise on a choice reaction time task. Journal of Sports Sciences, 24(3), 323–329. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410500132165
8.
DavrancheK.BrisswalterJ.RadelR. (2015). Where are the limits of the effects of exercise intensity on cognitive control?Journal of Sport and Health Science, 4(1), 56–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2014.08.004
9.
Del RossiG.MalagutiA.Del RossiS. (2014). Practice effects associated with repeated assessment of a clinical test of reaction time. Journal of Athletic Training, 49(3), 356–359. https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6059-49.2.04
10.
DraperS.McMorrisT.ParkerJ. K. (2010). Effect of acute exercise of differing intensities on simple and choice reaction and movement times. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 11(6), 536–541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.05.003
11.
DuncanS.BarrettL. F. (2007). Affect is a form of cognition: A neurobiological analysis. Cognition & Emotion, 21(6), 1184–1211. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930701437931
12.
EkkekakisP. (2003). Pleasure and displeasure from the body: Perspectives from exercise. Cognition & Emotion, 17(2), 213–239. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930302292
EkkekakisP.BrandR. (2019). Affective responses to and automatic affective valuations of physical activity: Fifty years of progress on the seminal question in exercise psychology. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 42, 130–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.12.018
15.
EkkekakisP.PetruzzelloS. J. (2002). Analysis of the affect measurement conundrum in exercise psychology: IV. A conceptual case for the affect circumplex. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 3(1), 35–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1469-0292(01)00028-0
16.
EvmenenkoA.TeixeiraD. S. (2020). The circumplex model of affect in physical activity contexts: A systematic review. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, (Online first) 1–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197x.2020.1854818
17.
FaulF.ErdfelderE.BuchnerA.LangA.-G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41(4), 1149–1160. https://doi.org/10.3758/brm.41.4.1149
18.
GelbartM.Ziv-BaranT.WilliamsC. A.YaromY.Dubnov-RazG. (2017). Prediction of maximal heart rate in children and adolescents. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 27(2), 139–144. https://doi.org/10.1097/JSM.0000000000000315
19.
HallE. E.EkkekakisP.PetruzzelloS. J. (2002). The affective beneficence of vigorous exercise revisited. British Journal of Health Psychology, 7(1), 47–66. https://doi.org/10.1348/135910702169358
20.
HardyC. J.RejeskiW. J. (1989). Not what, but how one feels: The measurement of affect during exercise. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 11(3), 304–317. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.11.3.304
21.
HarterS. (1978). Effectance motivation reconsidered toward a developmental model. Human Development, 21(1), 34–64. https://doi.org/10.1159/000271574
22.
HoffmanM. D.HoffmanD. R. (2008). Exercisers achieve greater acute exercise-induced mood enhancement than nonexercisers. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 89(2), 358–363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2007.09.026
23.
KamijoK.NishihiraY.HattaA.KanedaT.WasakaT.KidaT.KuroiwaK. (2004). Differential influences of exercise intensity on information processing in the central nervous system. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 92(3), 305–311. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-004-1097-2
KuppensP.Van MechelenI.NezlekJ. B.DosscheD.TimmermansT. (2007). Individual differences in core affect variability and their relationship to personality and psychological adjustment. Emotion, 7(2), 262–274. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.262
26.
LabelleV.BosquetL.MekaryS.BhererL. (2013). Decline in executive control during acute bouts of exercise as a function of exercise intensity and fitness level. Brain and Cognition, 81(1), 10–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2012.10.001
27.
LadavasE.NicolettiR.UmiltáC.RizzolattiG. (1984). Right hemisphere interference during negative affect: A RT study. Neuropsychologia, 22(4), 479–485. https://doi.org/10.1016/0028-3932(84)90042-3
28.
LangerA. W.McCubbinJ. A.StoneyC. M.HutchesonJ. S.CharltonJ. D.ObristP. A. (1985). Cardiopulmonary adjustments during exercise and an aversive reaction time task: Effects of beta-adrenoceptor blockade. Psychophysiology, 22(1), 59–68. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.1985.tb01561.x
29.
LiG.YinJ. C. (2008). The effects of shadowboxing on mood and beta-Ep in still condition of female college students. Journal of Beijing Sport University, 31(3), 357.
30.
MalikA. A.WilliamsC. A.WestonK. L.BarkerA. R. (2018). Perceptual responses to high-and moderate-intensity interval exercise in adolescents. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 50(5), 1021–1030. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0000000000001508
31.
MalikA. A.WilliamsC. A.WestonK. L.BarkerA. R. (2019). Perceptual and cardiorespiratory responses to high-intensity interval exercise in adolescents: Does work intensity matter?Journal of Sports Science & Medicine, 18(1), 1–12.
32.
McMorrisT.KeenP. (1994). Effect of exercise on simple RTs of recreational athletes. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78(1), 123–130. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1994.78.1.123
33.
MekariS.FraserS.BosquetL.BonnéryC.LabelleV.PouliotP.BhererL. (2015). The relationship between exercise intensity, cerebral oxygenation and cognitive performance in young adults. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 115(10), 2189–2197. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-015-3199-4
34.
MurphyS. L.EavesD. L. (2016). Exercising for the pleasure and for the pain of it: The implications of different forms of hedonistic thinking in theories of physical activity behavior. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 843. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00843
35.
ParfittG.HughesS. (2009). The exercise intensity–affect relationship: evidence and implications for exercise behavior. Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness, 7(2), S34–S41. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1728-869x(09)60021-6
PosnerJ.RussellJ. A.PetersonB. S. (2005). The circumplex model of affect: An integrative approach to affective neuroscience, cognitive development, and psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 17(03), 715–734. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579405050340
38.
RendiM.SzaboA.SzabóT. (2007). Relationship between physical exercise workload, information processing speed, and affect. International Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 19(1), 86–95.
39.
RokkaS.MavridisG.KouliO. (2010). The impact of exercise intensity on mood state of participants in dance aerobics programs. Physical Culture & Tourism, 17(3), 241–245.
40.
RussellJ. A. (1980). A circumplex model of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39(6), 1161–1178. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0077714
SchneiderM.DunnA.CooperD. (2009). Affect, exercise, and physical activity among healthy adolescents. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 31(6), 706–723. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.31.6.706
43.
SchneiderM. L.KwanB. M. (2013). Psychological need satisfaction, intrinsic motivation and affective response to exercise in adolescents. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 14(5), 776–785. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2013.04.005
44.
SmithM.TallisJ.MillerA.ClarkeN. D.Guimarães-FerreiraL.DuncanM. J. (2016). The effect of exercise intensity on cognitive performance during short duration treadmill running. Journal of Human Kinetics, 51(1), 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1515/hukin-2015-0167
45.
StarkR.SchönyW.KoppM. (2011). [Acute effects of a single bout of moderate exercise on psychological well-being in patients with affective disorder during hospital treatment]. Neuropsychiatrie: Klinik, Diagnostik, Therapie und Rehabilitation: Organ der Gesellschaft Osterreichischer Nervenarzte und Psychiater, 26(4), 166–170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40211-012-0033-7
46.
StreeterC. C.WhitfieldT. H.OwenL.ReinT.KarriS. K.YakhkindA.JensenJ. E. (2010). Effects of yoga versus walking on mood, anxiety, and brain GABA levels: A randomized controlled MRS study. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 16(11), 1145-1152. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2010.0007
47.
StychK.ParfittG. (2011). Exploring affective responses to different exercise intensities in low-active young adolescents. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 33(4), 548–568. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.33.4.548
48.
SvebakS.MurgatroydS. (1985). Metamotivational dominance: A multimethod validation of reversal theory constructs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48(1), 107–116. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.48.1.107
49.
SzaboA. (2003). Acute Psychological benefits of exercise performed at self-selected workloads: Implications for theory and practice. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 2(3), 77–87.
SzaboA.NikházyL.TihanyiB.BorosS. (2017). An in-situ investigation of the acute effects of Bikram yoga on positive- and negative affect, and state-anxiety in context of perceived stress. Journal of Mental Health, 26(2), 156–160. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638237.2016.1222059
52.
TanakaH.MonahanK. D.SealsD. R. (2001). Age-predicted maximal heart rate revisited. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 37(1), 153–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0735-1097(00)01054-8
53.
ThomsonK.WattA. P. (Eds.). (2010). Connecting paradigms of motor behavior to sport and physical education. Tallinn University Press.
54.
TolnaiN.SzabóZ.KötelesF.SzaboA. (2016). Physical and psychological benefits of once-a-week Pilates exercises in young sedentary women: A 10-week longitudinal study. Physiology & Behavior, 163, 211–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.05.025
55.
ToskovicN. N. (2001). Alterations in selected measures of mood with a single bout of dynamic Taekwondo exercise in college-age students. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 92(3c), 1031–1038. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.2001.92.3c.1031
56.
ValentineE.EvansC. (2001). The effects of solo singing, choral singing and swimming on mood and physiological indices. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 74(1), 115–120. https://doi.org/10.1348/000711201160849
57.
Van LanduytL. M.EkkekakisP.HallE. E.PetruzzelloS. J. (2000). Throwing the mountains into the lakes: On the perils of nomothetic conceptions of the exercise-affect relationship. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 22(3), 208–234. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.22.3.208
WhiteM. M.PowellM. (1936). The differential reaction-time for pleasant and unpleasant Words. The American Journal of Psychology, 48(1), 126. https://doi.org/10.2307/1415558
60.
WilliamsD. M. (2008). Exercise, Affect, and Adherence: An integrated model and a case for self-paced exercise. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 30(5), 471–496. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.30.5.471
61.
World Medical Association. (2013). World medical association declaration of Helsinki: Ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA, 310(20), 2191–2194. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.281053
