The Effect of an 8-Week Aerobic Dance Program on Executive Function in Children

Abstract

In the current study, we examined the effect of an aerobic dance program as part of physical education (PE) classes on aspects of primary school children’s executive functions (EFs) (inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility). Participants were 41 children (21 boys and 20 girls; M age =10.30, SD = 0.50 years, M height = 134.09, SD= 3.9 cm; M weight = 35.61, SD = 7.85 kg) who were divided into an experimental group (EG) and a no-PE control group (CG). The EG followed an aerobic dance intervention as part of their PE program (45 minute sessions two days per week over eight weeks). Participants in both groups performed EF tests before and after the intervention period to evaluate their mental flexibility, inhibition, and working memory. A two-way mixed model repeated measures ANOVA revealed a significant effect of the aerobic dance program on participants’ cognitive flexibility (i.e., on Trails Making Tests _B-A times and committed errors) (p <0.001), and on Stroop measures of inhibition (corrected number of words and corrected errors) (p <0.001 and p <0.01, respectively), with post-hoc analyses showing an improved performance by the EG in working memory (digit recall score) from pre-test to post-test and in comparsion to the CG (p < 0.001). Thus, this 8-week aerobic dance program promoted EF development among primary school children.

Keywords

executive function children aerobic dance physical education exercise

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Abdelkarim

Ammar

Chtourou

Wagner

Knisel

Hökelmann

Bös

(2017). Relationship between motor and cognitive learning abilities among primary school-aged children. Alexandria Journal of Medicine, 53(4), 325–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajme.2016.12.004

Alesi

Giordano

Giaccone

Basile

Costa

Bianco

(2020). Effects of the enriched sports activities-program on executive functions in Italian children. Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology, 5(2), 26. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk5020026

Anderson

(2002). Assessment and development of executive function (EF) during childhood. Child Neuropsychology, 8(2), 71–82. https://doi.org/10.1076/chin.8.2.71.8724

Bellgrove

M. A.

Hester

Garavan

(2004). The functional neuroanatomical correlates of response variability: Evidence from a response inhibition task. Neuropsychologia, 42(14), 1910–1916. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2004.05.007

Benítez‐Porres

López‐Fernández

Raya

J. F.

Álvarez Carnero

Alvero‐Cruz

J. R.

Álvarez Carnero

(2016). Reliability and validity of the PAQ‐C questionnaire to assess physical activity in children. Journal of School Health, 86(9), 677–685. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12418

Best

(2010). Effects of physical activity on children’s executive function: Contributions of experimental research on aerobic exercise. Developmental Review, 30(4), 331–351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2010.08.001

Bidzan-Bluma

Lipowska

(2018). Physical activity and cognitive functioning of children: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(4), 800. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15040800

Biederman

Monuteaux

M. C.

Doyle

A. E.

Seidman

L. J.

Wilens

T. E.

Ferrero

Morgan

C. L.

Faraone

S. V.

(2004). Impact of executive function deficits and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) on academic outcomes in children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(5), 757–766. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.72.5.757

Botvinick

M. M.

Cohen

J. D.

Carter

C. S.

(2004). Conflict monitoring and anterior cingulate cortex: An update. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8(12), 539–546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2004.10.003

10.

B. Owen

Smith

Lubans

D. R.

J. Y. Y.

Lonsdale

(2014). Self-determined motivation and physical activity in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Preventive Medicine, 67, 270–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2014.07.033.

11.

Ciomag

R.-V.

Dinciu

C.-C.

(2013). Aerobics - modern trend in the university educational domain. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 92(2013), 251–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.08.668

12.

Clark

Prior

Kinsella

(2002). The relationship between executive function abilities, adaptive behaviour, and academic achievement in children with externalising behaviour problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43(6), 785–796. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00084

13.

Cortese

Rossi-Arnaud

(2010). Working memory for ballet moves and spatial locations in professional ballet dancers. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24(2), 266–286. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1593

14.

Cosnefroy

(2010). L’apprentissage autorégulé : Perspectives en formation d’adultes. Savoirs, 23(2), 9–50. https://doi.org/10.3917/savo.023.0009

15.

Crocker

P. R. E.

Bailey

D. A.

Faulkner

R. A.

Kowalski

K. C.

McGrath

(1997). Measuring General Levels of Physical activity: Preliminary evidence for the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Older Children. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 29(10), 1344–1349. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-199710000-00011

16.

Davidson

M. C.

Amso

Anderson

L. C.

Diamond

(2006). Development of cognitive control and executive functions from 4 to 13 years: Evidence from manipulations of memory, inhibition, and task switching. Neuropsychologia, 44(11), 2037–2078. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.02.006

17.

de Bruin

Eggenberger

Schumacher

Angst

Theill

(2015). Does multicomponent physical exercise with simultaneous cognitive training boost cognitive performance in older adults? A 6-month randomized controlled trial with a 1-year follow-up. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 10, 1335–1349. https://doi.org/10.2147/CIA.S87732

18.

de Greeff

J. W.

Bosker

R. J.

Oosterlaan

Visscher

Hartman

(2018). Effects of physical activity on executive functions, attention and academic performance in preadolescent children: A meta-analysis. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 21(5), 501–507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2017.09.595

19.

Diamond

(2000). Close interrelation of motor development and cognitive development and of the cerebellum and prefrontal cortex. Child Development, 71(1), 44–56. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00117

20.

Diamond

(2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(01), 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750

21.

Diamond

Ling

D. S.

(2016). Conclusions about interventions, programs, and approaches for improving executive functions that appear justified and those that, despite much hype, do not. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 18, 34–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2015.11.005

22.

Drygas

Skiba

Bielecki

Puska

(2001). Physical activity estimation among the inhabitants of six European countries Project “Bridging East-West Health Gap”. Med Sportiva, 5(Suppl 2), 119–128.

23.

Elghoul

Frikha

Masmoudi

Chtourou

Chaouachi

Chamari

Souissi

(2014). Diurnal variation of cognitive performance and perceived difficulty in dart-throwing performance in 9–10-year-old boys. Biological Rhythm Research, 45(5), 789–801. https://doi.org/10.1080/09291016.2014.921409

24.

Ellis

L. K.

Rothbart

M. K.

Posner

M. I.

(2004). Individual differences in executive attention predict self-regulation and adolescent psychosocial behaviors. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021(1), 337–340. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1308.041

25.

Faul

Erdfelder

Lang

A.-G.

Buchner

(2007). G* Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior research methods, 39(2), 175–191.

26.

Fournet

Achachi

Roy

Besnard

Lancelot

Le Gall

Bouvard

(2019). Impaired executive function in everyday life: a predictor of OCD relapse? Journal of Behavioral and Brain Science, 09(3), 90–107. https://doi.org/10.4236/jbbs.2019.93008

27.

Gathercole

S. E.

Brown

Pickering

S. J.

(2003). Working memory assessments at school entry as longitudinal predictors of national curriculum attainment levels. Educational and Child Psychology, 20(3), 109–122.

28.

Giguere

(2011). Dancing thoughts: An examination of children’s cognition and creative process in dance. Research in Dance Education, 12(1), 5–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/14647893.2011.554975

29.

Hillman

C. H.

Castelli

D. M.

Buck

S. M.

(2005). Aerobic fitness and neurocognitive function in healthy preadolescent children. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 37(11), 1967–1974. https://doi.org/10.1249/01.mss.0000176680.79702.ce

30.

Hillman

C. H.

Pontifex

M. B.

Castelli

D. M.

Khan

N. A.

Raine

L. B.

Scudder

M. R.

Drollette

E. S.

Moore

R. D.

C.-T.

Kamijo

(2014). Effects of the FITKids randomized controlled trial on executive control and brain function. Pediatrics, 134(4), e1063–e1071. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2013-3219

31.

Howie

E. K.

Schatz

Pate

R. R.

(2015). Acute effects of classroom exercise breaks on executive function and math performance: a dose-response study. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 86(3), 217–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2015.1039892

32.

Iermakov

Podrigalo

Alekseev

Rovnaya

(2016). Studying of interconnections of morphological functional indicators of students, who practice martial arts. Physical education of students, 20(1), 64–70. https://doi.org/10.15561/20755279.2016.0109

33.

Jaakkola

Liukkonen

Laakso

Ommundsen

(2008). The relationship between situational and contextual self-determined motivation and physical activity intensity as measured by heart rates during ninth grade students’ physical education classes. European Physical Education Review, 14(1), 13–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336X07085707

34.

Jola

McAleer

Grosbras

M.-H.

Love

S. A.

Morison

Pollick

F. E.

(2013). Uni- and multisensory brain areas are synchronised across spectators when watching unedited dance recordings. I-Perception, 4(4), 265–284. https://doi.org/10.1068/i0536

35.

Jurado

M. B.

Rosselli

(2007). The elusive nature of executive functions: A review of our current understanding. Neuropsychology Review, 17(3), 213–233. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-007-9040-z

36.

Kamijo

Pontifex

M. B.

O’Leary

K. C.

Scudder

M. R.

C.-T.

Castelli

D. M.

Hillman

C. H.

(2011). The effects of an afterschool physical activity program on working memory in preadolescent children. Developmental Science, 14(5), 1046–1058. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2011.01054.x

37.

Kattenstroth

J.-C.

Kalisch

Holt

Tegenthoff

Dinse

H. R.

(2013). Six months of dance intervention enhances postural, sensorimotor, and cognitive performance in elderly without affecting cardio-respiratory functions. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 5, 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2013.00005.

38.

Kaya

Çamligüney

Ramazanoǧlu

Aldemir

(2011). The effects of dance education on motor performance of children. Educational Research and Reviews, 16(19), 979–982. https://doi.org/10.5897/ERR11.179

39.

Kimura

Hozumi

(2012). Investigating the acute effect of an aerobic dance exercise program on neuro-cognitive function in the elderly. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13(5), 623–629. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2012.04.001

40.

Klingberg

Forssberg

Westerberg

(2002). Increased brain activity in frontal and parietal cortex underlies the development of visuospatial working memory capacity during childhood. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1162/089892902317205276

41.

Kosmat

Vranic

(2017). The efficacy of a dance intervention as cognitive training for the old-old. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 25(1), 32–40. https://doi.org/10.1123/japa.2015-0264

42.

Kowalski

K. C.

Crocker

P. R.

Donen

R. M.

(2004). The physical activity questionnaire for older children (PAQ-C) and adolescents (PAQ-A) manual. College of Kinesiology, University of Saskatchewan, 87(1), 1–38.

43.

Kowalski

K. C.

Crocker

P. R. E.

Faulkner

R. A.

(1997). Validation of the physical activity questionnaire for older children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 9(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.9.2.174

44.

Kremenitzer

J. P.

(1990). Aerobic fitness dancing in the elementary schools. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 61(6), 89–90. https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.1990.10604562

45.

Kulinna

P. H.

Stylianou

Dyson

Banville

Dryden

Colby

(2018). The effect of an authentic acute physical education session of dance on elementary students’ selective attention. Biomed Research International, 2018, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/8790283

46.

Ledochowski

Andrade

B. F.

Toplak

M. E.

(2019). A novel unstructured performance-based task of executive function in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 41(5), 445–459. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2019.1567694

47.

Lezak

M. D.

Howieson

D. B.

Loring

D. W.

Fischer

J. S.

(2004). Neuropsychological assessment: Oxford University Press.

48.

Lin

H.-Y.

Gau

S. S.-F.

Huang-Gu

S. L.

Shang

C.-Y.

Y.-H.

Tseng

W.-Y. I.

(2014). Neural substrates of behavioral variability in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Based on ex-gaussian reaction time distribution and diffusion spectrum imaging tractography. Psychological Medicine, 44(8), 1751–1764. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291713001955

49.

Mavridis

Filippou

Rokka

Bousiou

Mavridis

(2004). The effect of a health-related aerobic dance program on elementary school children: Teviot Scientific. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2011.00191.x

50.

McClelland

M. M.

Cameron

C. E.

(2012). Self-regulation in early childhood: improving conceptual clarity and developing ecologically valid measures. Child Development Perspectives, 6(2), 136–142. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2011.00191.x

51.

Meijer

Königs

Bruijn

A. G. M.

Visscher

Bosker

R. J.

Hartman

Oosterlaan

(2020). Cardiovascular fitness and executive functioning in primary school‐aged children. Developmental Science, 24, e13019. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.13019

52.

Merom

Cumming

Mathieu

Anstey

K. J.

Rissel

Simpson

J. M.

Morton

R. L.

Cerin

Sherrington

Lord

S. R.

(2013). Can social dancing prevent falls in older adults? A protocol of the dance, aging, cognition, economics (DAnCE) fall prevention randomised controlled trial. BMC Public Health, 13(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-477

53.

Metcalf

B. S.

Hosking

Jeffery

A. N.

Voss

L. D.

Henley

Wilkin

T. J.

(2011). Fatness leads to inactivity, but inactivity does not lead to fatness: A longitudinal study in children (EarlyBird 45). Archives of Disease in Childhood, 96(10), 942–947. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.2009.175927

54.

Mezcua-Hidalgo

Ruiz-Ariza

Suárez-Manzano

Martínez-López

E. J.

(2019). 48-hour effects of monitored cooperative high-intensity interval training on adolescent cognitive functioning. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 126(2), 202–222. https://doi.org/10.1177/0031512518825197

55.

Moore

J. B.

Hanes

J. C.

Barbeau

Gutin

Treviño

R. P.

Yin

(2007). Validation of the physical activity questionnaire for older children in children of different races. Pediatric Exercise Science, 19(1), 6–19. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.19.1.6

56.

Moreno

Marques

Santos

Castro

S. L.

Besson

(2009). Musical training influences linguistic abilities in 8-year-old children: More evidence for brain plasticity. Cerebral Cortex, 19(3), 712–723. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhn120

57.

Murrock

C. J.

Graor

C. H.

(2014). Effects of dance on depression, physical function, and disability in underserved adults. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 22(3), 380–385. https://doi.org/10.1123/japa.2013-0003

58.

Myer

G. D.

Faigenbaum

A. D.

Edwards

N. M.

Clark

J. F.

Best

T. M.

Sallis

R. E.

(2015). Sixty minutes of what? A developing brain perspective for activating children with an integrative exercise approach. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 49(23), 1510–1516. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2014-093661

59.

Norouzi

Hosseini

Vaezmosavi

Gerber

Pühse

Brand

(2019). Zumba dancing and aerobic exercise can improve working memory, motor function, and depressive symptoms in female patients with fibromyalgia. European journal of sport science, 20, 981–991. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2019.1683610

60.

Oppici

Rudd

Buszard

Spittle

(2020101675). Efficacy of a 7-week dance (RCT) PE curriculum with different teaching pedagogies and levels of cognitive challenge to improve working memory capacity and motor competence in 8–10 years old children. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 50(2020), 101675. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2020.101675

61.

Pantelić

Kostić

Mikalački

Đurašković

Čokorilo

Mladenović

(2007). The effects of a recreational aerobic exercise model on the functional abilities of women. Facta Universitatis-Series: Physical Education and Sport, 5(1), 19–35.

62.

Papaioannou

Marsh

H. W.

Theodorakis

(2004). A multilevel approach to motivational climate in physical education and sport settings: an individual or a group level construct? Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 26(1), 90–118. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.26.1.90

63.

Predovan

Julien

Esmail

Bherer

(2019). Effects of dancing on cognition in healthy older adults: a systematic review. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 3(2), 161–167. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-018-0103-2

64.

Raver

C. C.

Jones

S. M.

Li-Grining

Zhai

Bub

Pressler

(2011). CSRP’s impact on low-income preschoolers’ preacademic skills: Self-regulation as a mediating mechanism. Child Development, 82(1), 362–378. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01561.x

65.

Reader

M. J.

Harris

E. L.

Schuerholz

L. J.

Denckla

M. B.

(1994). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and executive dysfunction. Developmental Neuropsychology, 10(4), 493–512. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565649409540598

66.

Reitan

(1979). Manual for administration of neuropsychological test batteries for adults and children: Reitan Neuropsychology Laboratory

67.

Rokka

Kouli

Bebetsos

Goulimaris

Mavridis

(2019). Effect of dance aerobic programs on intrinsic motivation and perceived task climate in secondary school students. International Journal of Instruction, 12(1), 641–654. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2019.12141a

68.

Rudd

Buszard

Spittle

O'Callaghan

Oppici

(2021). Comparing the efficacy (RCT) of learning a dance choreography and practicing creative dance on improving executive functions and motor competence in 6-7 years old children. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 53, 101846. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2020.101846

69.

Sánchez-cubillo

Periáñez

J. A.

Adrover-Roig

Rodríguez-sánchez

J. M.

RÍOS-LAGO

Tirapu

Barceló

(2009). Construct validity of the trail making test: role of task-switching, working memory, inhibition/interference control, and visuomotor abilities. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 15(3), 438–450. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617709090626

70.

Schmidt

Jäger

Egger

Roebers

C. M.

Conzelmann

(2015). Cognitively engaging chronic physical activity, but not aerobic exercise, affects executive functions in primary school children: A group-randomized controlled trial. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 37(6), 575–591. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2015-0069

71.

Shen

Zhao

Huang

Liu

Fang

(2020). Promotion of street-dance training on the executive function in preschool children. Frontiers in Psychology, 11(2817). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.585598

72.

Sibley

B. A.

Etnier

J. L.

(2003). The relationship between physical activity and cognition in children: a meta-analysis. Pediatric Exercise Science, 15(3), 243–256. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijsl.2000.143.183

73.

Souissi

Chtourou

Chaouachi

Dogui

Chamari

Souissi

Amri

(2012). The effect of training at a specific time-of-day on the diurnal variations of short-term exercise performances in 10- to 11-year-old boys. Pediatric Exercise Science, 24(1), 84–99. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.24.1.84

74.

Stevens

M. C.

Skudlarski

Pearlson

G. D.

Calhoun

V. D.

(2009). Age-related cognitive gains are mediated by the effects of white matter development on brain network integration. Neuroimage, 48(4), 738–746. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.06.065

75.

Stroop

J. R.

(1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of experimental psychology, 18(6), 643–662. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054651

76.

Tapert

S. F.

Baratta

M. V.

Abrantes

A. M.

Brown

S. A.

(2002). Attention dysfunction predicts substance involvement in community youths. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(6), 680–686. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200206000-00007

77.

Tomporowski

P. D.

Pesce

(2019). Exercise, sports, and performance arts benefit cognition via a common process. Psychological Bulletin, 145(9), 929–951. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000200

78.

Ursache

Blair

Raver

C. C.

(2012). The promotion of self-regulation as a means of enhancing school readiness and early achievement in children at risk for school failure. Child Development Perspectives, 6(2), 122–128. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2011.00209.x

79.

van den Berg

Saliasi

de Groot

R. H. M.

Chinapaw

M. J. M.

Singh

A. S.

(2019). Improving cognitive performance of 9-12 Years old children: just dance? A randomized controlled trial. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 174. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00174

80.

van der Niet

A. G.

Smith

Oosterlaan

Scherder

E. J. A.

Hartman

Visscher

(2016). Effects of a cognitively demanding aerobic intervention during recess on children’s physical fitness and executive functioning. Pediatric Exercise Science, 28(1), 64–70. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2015-0084

81.

van Ewijk

Weeda

W. D.

Heslenfeld

D. J.

Luman

Hartman

C. A.

Hoekstra

P. J.

, et al (2015). Neural correlates of visuospatial working memory in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and healthy controls. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 233(2), 233–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2015.07.003

82.

Voss

M. W.

Heo

Prakash

R. S.

Erickson

K. I.

Alves

Chaddock

, et al (2013). The influence of aerobic fitness on cerebral white matter integrity and cognitive function in older adults: results of a one-year exercise intervention. Human Brain Mapping, 34(11), 2972–2985. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.22119

83.

Yetti

Syarah

E. S.

Pramitasari

Syarfina

Susanti

(2019). The influence of the dance creativity on executive functions of early childhood. cognitive Development, 14, 15. https://doi.org/10.2991/icade-18.2019.59.

84.

Yli-Piipari

(2011). The development of students ́physical education motivation and physical activity: A 3.5-year longitudinal study across grades 6 to 9. University of Jyväskylä.