This study analyzed the effects of spectral overlays on ocular motility during reading among a clinical group of children and adolescents experiencing visual–perceptual distortions of text. We reviewed the records of 323 eye-hospital patients diagnosed with visual stress and divided this participant sample into two age-based cohorts: children (n =184; Mean [M] age = 10.1, standard deviation [SD]=1.3 years) and adolescents (n =139; M age = 14.6, SD = 1.5 years). We used a Visagraph III Eye-Movement Recording System to record ocular motor efficiency while reading with and without spectral overlays, and we examined the following parameters: (a) Fixations, (b) Regressions, (c) Span of Recognition, (d) Reading Rate, (e) Relative Efficiency, and (f) Comprehension. Our results showed that using one or some combination of 10 participant-selected spectral overlays immediately and significantly (p <.001) reduced the number of Fixations and Regressions per 100 words, while there were significant (p <.001) gains in positive factors such as Span of Recognition, Reading Rate, Relative Efficiency, and Comprehension. Our findings indicate that spectral filtering can be an effective tool for helping many young patients who experience visual–perceptual distortions while reading. Future expanded research employing eye-tracking technology is clearly needed.
AllenP. M.EvansB. J. W.WilkinsA. J. (2012).
The uses of colour in optometric practice to ameliorate symptoms of visual stress. Optometry in Practice,
13(1), 1–8.
2.
AllenP. M.GilchristJ. M.HollisJ. (2008).
Use of visual search in the assessment of pattern-related visual stress (PRVS) and its alleviation by colored filters.Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science,
49(9), 4210–4218. doi:10.1167/iovs.07-1587
3.
AshbyJ.YangJ.EvansK. H.RaynerK. (2012).
Eye movements and the perceptual span in silent and oral reading.Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics,
74(4), 634–640. doi:10.3758/s13414-012-0277-0
4.
BeasleyI. G.DaviesL. N. (2013).
Visual stress symptoms secondary to stroke alleviated with spectral filters and precision tinted ophthalmic lenses: A case report.Clinical and Experimental Optometry,
96(1), 117–120. doi:10.1111/j.1444-0938.2012.00794.x
5.
BouldoukianJ.WilkinsA. J.EvansB. J. (2002).
Randomised controlled trial of the effect of coloured overlays on the rate of reading of people with specific learning difficulties.Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics,
22(1), 55–60. doi:10.1046/j.1475-1313.2002.00002.x
6.
ChaseC.AshourzadehA.KellyC.MonfetteS.KinseyK. (2003).
Can the magnocellular pathway read? Evidence from studies of color.Vision Research,
43(10), 1211–1222. doi:10.1016/S0042-6989(03)00085-3
7.
ChouinardB. D.ZhouC. I.HrybouskiS.KimE. S.CummineJ. (2012).
A functional neuroimaging case study of Meares-Irlen syndrome/visual stress (MISViS).Brain Topography,
25(3), 293–307. doi:10.1007/s10548-011-0212-z
8.
CohenJ. W. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioural sciences (2nd ed.).
Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
9.
CroyleL. (1998).
Rate of reading, visual processing, colour and contrast.Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties,
3(3), 13–21. doi:10.1080/19404159809546566
10.
Declaration of Helsinki (World Medical Association). (2008, October). 7th Revision of the Declaration of Helsinki: Ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. 59th World Medical Association (WMA) General Assembly, Seoul, South Korea. Retrieved from http://www.wma.net/en/30publications/10policies/b3/17c.pdf.
11.
EvansB. J.AllenP. M. (2016).
A systematic review of controlled trials on visual stress using Intuitive Overlays or the Intuitive Colorimeter.Journal of Optometry,
9(4), 205–218. doi:10.1016/j.optom.2016.04.002
12.
EvansB. J.AllenP. M.WilkinsA. J. (2017).
A Delphi study to develop practical diagnostic guidelines for visual stress (pattern-related visual stress).Journal of Optometry,
10(3), 161–168. doi:10.1016/j.optom.2016.08.002
13.
EvansB. J.JosephF. (2002).
The effect of coloured filters on the rate of reading in an adult student population.Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics,
22(6), 535–545. doi:10.1046/j.1475-1313.2002.00071.x
14.
EvansB. J.PatelR.WilkinsA. J.LightstoneA.EperjesiF.SpeedwellL., … DuffyJ. (1999).
A review of the management of 323 consecutive patients seen in a specific learning difficulties clinic.Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics,
19(6), 454–466. doi:10.1111/j.1475-1313.1999.00465.x
15.
GaertnerC.BucciM. P.AjrezoL.Wiener-VacherS. (2013).
Binocular coordination of saccades during reading in children with clinically assessed poor vergence capabilities.Vision Research,
87, 22–29. doi:10.1016/j.visres.2013.05.006
16.
GarciaA. C. O.Momensohn-SantosT. M.VilhenaD. A. (2017).
Effects of spectral overlays on reading performance of Brazilian elementary school children.Folia Phoniatrica Et Logopaedica,
69(5–6), 219–225. doi:10.1159/000484139
17.
GreatrexJ. C.DrasdoN. (1995).
The magnocellular deficit hypothesis in dyslexia: A review of reported evidence.Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics,
15(5), 501–506. doi:10.1046/j.1475-1313.1995.9500090z.x
18.
GriffithsP. G.TaylorR. H.HendersonL. M.BarrettB. T. (2016).
The effect of coloured overlays and lenses on reading: A systematic review of the literature.Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics,
36(5), 519–544. doi:10.1111/opo.12316
19.
HuangJ.ZongX.WilkinsA. J.JenkinsB.BozokiA.CaoY. (2011).
fMRI evidence that precision ophthalmic tints reduce cortical hyperactivation in migraine.Cephalalgia,
31(8), 925–936. doi:10.1177/0333102411409076
20.
HyattK. J.StephensonJ.CarterM. (2009).
A review of three controversial educational practices: Perceptual motor programs, sensory integration, and tinted lenses.Education and Treatment of Children,
32(2), 313–342. doi:10.1353/etc.0.0054
21.
IrlenH. (2003). Irlen Reading Perceptual Scale instructional manual (10th ed.).
Long Beach, CA:
Perceptual Development Corporation.
22.
JeanesR.BusbyA.MartinJ.LewisE.StevensonN.PointonD., … WilkinsA. J. (1997).
Prolonged use of coloured overlays for classroom reading. British Journal of Psychology,
88 (Pt 4), 531–548. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1997.tb02656.x
23.
KimJ. H.SeoH. J.HaS. G.KimS. H. (2015).
Functional magnetic resonance imaging findings in Meares-Irlen syndrome: A pilot study.Korean Journal of Ophthalmology,
29(2), 121–125. doi:10.3341/kjo.2015.29.2.121
24.
KrissI.EvansB. J. (2005).
The relationship between dyslexia and Meares-Irlen Syndrome.Journal of Research in Reading,
28(3), 350–64. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9817.2005.00274.x
25.
LoewS. J.MarshN. V.WatsonK. (2014).
Symptoms of Meares-Irlen/Visual Stress Syndrome in subjects diagnosed with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome.International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology,
14(2), 87–92. doi:10.1016/S1697-2600(14)70041-9
26.
LoewS. J.RodriguezC.MarshN. V.JonesG. L.NunezJ. C.WatsonK. (2015).
Levels of visual stress in proficient readers: Effects of spectral filtering of fluorescent lighting on reading discomfort. TheSpanish Journal of Psychology,
18, E58.doi:10.1017/sjp.2015.59
27.
LoewS. J.WatsonK. (2012).
A prospective genetic marker of the visual-perception disorder Meares-Irlen syndrome.Perceptual and Motor Skills,
114, 870–882. doi:10.2466/24.10.11.27.PMS.114.3.870-882
28.
LoewS. J.WatsonK. (2013).
The prevalence of symptoms of scotopic sensitivity/Meares-Irlen syndrome in subjects diagnosed with ADHD: Does misdiagnosis play a significant role?Hrvatska Revija Za Rehabilitacijska Istrazivanja,
49, 64–72. Retrieved from http://e-publications.une.edu.au/1959.11/14414
29.
LudlowA. K.Taylor-WhiffenE.WilkinsA. J. (2012).
Coloured filters enhance the visual perception of social cues in children with autism spectrum disorders.ISRN Neurology,
2012, 298098. doi:10.5402/2012/298098
30.
LudlowA. K.WilkinsA. J. (2016).
Atypical sensory behaviours in children with Tourette’s syndrome and in children with autism spectrum disorders.Research in Developmental Disabilities,
56, 108–116. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2016.05.019
31.
LudlowA. K.WilkinsA. J.HeatonP. (2006).
The effect of coloured overlays on reading ability in children with autism.Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,
36(4), 507–516. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0090-5
32.
LudlowA. K.WilkinsA. J.HeatonP. (2008).
Colored overlays enhance visual perceptual performance in children with autism spectrum disorders.Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders,
2(3), 498–515. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2007.10.001
33.
NicholsS. A.McLeodJ. S.HolderR. L.McLeodH. S. (2009).
Screening for dyslexia, dyspraxia and Meares-Irlen syndrome in higher education.Dyslexia,
15(1), 42–60. doi:10.1002/dys.382
34.
NicolsonR. I.FawcettA. J. (2019).
Development of dyslexia: The delayed neural commitment framework. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience,
13, 112. doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00112
35.
NobleJ.OrtonM.IrlenS.RobinsonG. L. (2004).
A controlled field study of the use of coloured overlays on reading achievement.Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties,
9(2), 14–22. doi:10.1080/19404150409546760
36.
OkumuraT.WakamiyaE.SuzukiS.TamaiH. (2006).
Saccadic eye movements in children with reading disorders.Brain and Development,
38, 347–352. doi:10.1007/s00221-012-3192-7
37.
PammerK.WheatleyC. (2001).
Isolating the M(y)-cell response in dyslexia using the spatial frequency doubling illusion.Vision Research,
41(16), 2139–2147. doi:10.1016/s0042-6989(01)00092-x
38.
QuinnJ. M. (2018).
Differential identification of females and males with reading difficulties: A meta-analysis.Reading and Writing,
31(5), 1039–1061. doi:10.1007/s11145-018-9827-8.
39.
RayN. J.FowlerS.SteinJ. F. (2005).
Yellow filters can improve magnocellular function: Motion sensitivity, convergence, accommodation, and reading.Annals of New York Academy of Sciences,
1039, 283–293. doi:10.1196/annals.1325.027
40.
RazukM.Perrin-FievezF.GerardC. L.PeyreH.BarelaJ. A.BucciM. P. (2018).
Effect of colored filters on reading capabilities in dyslexic children.Research in Developmental Disabilities,
83, 1–7. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2018.07.006
41.
RitchieS. J.Della SalaS.McIntoshR. D. (2011).
Irlen colored overlays do not alleviate reading difficulties.Pediatrics,
128(4), e932–938. doi:10.1542/peds.2011-0314
42.
RitchieS. J.Della SalaS.McIntoshR. D. (2012).
Irlen colored filters in the classroom: A 1‐year follow‐up.Mind, Brain, and Education,
6(2), 74–80. doi:10.1111/j.1751-228X.2012.01139.x
43.
RobinsonG, L.ForemanP. J.DearK. B. (1996).
The familial incidence of symptoms of Scotopic sensitivity/Irlen syndrome.Perceptual and Motor Skills,
83, 1043–1055. doi 10.2466/pms.1996.83.3.1043
44.
RobinsonG. L.ForemanP. J.DearK. B. (2000).
The familial incidence of symptoms of Scotopic sensitivity/Irlen syndrome: Comparison of referred and mass-screened groups.Perceptual and Motor Skills,
91, 707–724. doi:10.2466/pms.2000.91.3.707
45.
RobinsonG. L.McGregorN. R.RobertsT. K.DunstanR. H.ButtH. (2001).
A biochemical analysis of people with chronic fatigue who have Irlen syndrome: Speculation concerning immune system dysfunction.Perceptual and Motor Skills,
93, 486–504. doi:10.2466/pms.2001.93.2.486
46.
SingletonC.HendersonL.-M. (2007).
Computerized screening for visual stress in children with dyslexia.Dyslexia,
13(2), 130–151. doi:10.1002/dys.329
47.
SolanH. A.FicarraA.BrannanJ. R.RuckerF. (1998).
Eye movement efficiency in normal and reading disabled elementary school children: Effects of varying luminance and wavelength.Journal of American Optometric Association,
69(7), 455–464.
48.
SparkesD. L.RobinsonG. L.DunstanH.RobertsT. K. (2003).
Plasma cholesterol levels and Irlen syndrome: Preliminary study of 10- to 17-yr.-old students.Perceptual and Motor Skills,
97, 743–752. doi:10.2466/pms. 2003.97.3.743
49.
SteinJ. (2019).
The current status of the magnocellular theory of developmental dyslexia.Neuropsychologia,
130, 66–77. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018. 03.022
50.
SteinJ.WalshV. (1997).
To see but not to read; the magnocellular theory of dyslexia.Trends in Neuroscience,
20(4), 147–152. doi:10.1016/s0166-2236(96)01005-3
51.
StromeyerC. F.3rdChaparroA.ToliasA. S.KronauerR. E. (1997).
Colour adaptation modifies the long-wave versus middle-wave cone weights and temporal phases in human luminance (but not red-green) mechanism.Journal of Physiology,
499 (Pt 1), 227–254. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1997.sp021923
52.
Taylor Associates. (2006). Visagraph III: Resource guide. New York, NY: Author.
53.
VidyasagarT. R. (2019).
Visual attention and neural oscillations in reading and dyslexia: Are they possible targets for remediation?Neuropsychologia,
130, 59–65. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2019.02.009
54.
WhitakerL.JonesC. R. G.WilkinsA. J.RobersonD. (2016).
Judging the intensity of emotional expression in faces: The effects of colored tints on individuals with autism spectrum disorder.Autism Research,
9(4), 450–459. doi:10.1002/aur.1506
55.
WilkinsA. J.BakerA.AminD.SmithS.BradfordJ.ZaiwallaZ.,. . . FishD. (1999).
Treatment of photosensitive epilepsy using coloured glasses.Seizure,
8(8), 444–449. doi:10.1053/seiz.1999.0337
56.
WilkinsA. J.HuangJ.CaoY. (2007).
Prevention of visual stress and migraine with precision spectral filters.Drug Developmental Research,
68(7), 469–475. doi:10.1002/ddr.20216
57.
WilkinsA. J.JeanesR. J.PumfreyP. D.LaskierM. (1996).
Rate of reading test: Its reliability, and its validity in the assessment of the effects of coloured overlays.Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics,
16(6), 491–497. doi:10.1046/j.1475-1313.1996.96000282.x
WilkinsA. J.LewisE.SmithF.RowlandE.TweedieW. (2001).
Coloured overlays and their benefit for reading.Journal of Research in Reading,
24(1), 41–64. doi:10.1111/1467-9817.00132
60.
WilliamsM. C.BreitmeyerB. G.LovegroveW. J.GutierrezC. (1991).
Metacontrast with masks varying in spatial frequency and wavelength.Vision Research,
31(11), 2017–2023. doi:10.1016/0042-6989(91)90196-c
61.
WrightB. N.WilkinsA. J.ZoukosY. (2007).
Spectral filters can improve reading and visual search in patients with multiple sclerosis.Journal of Neurology,
254(12), 1729–1735. doi:10.1007/s00415-007-0648-y
