There is a chronic, persistent shortage of fully licensed special educators. Teacher residencies in special education offer a path to address this shortage, and Special Education Classroom Assistants, (SECAs), are a unique subset to recruit into residencies. SECAs bring their own prior experiences and knowledge into the residency classroom. The purpose of this paper is to examine SECAs’ funds of knowledge, how they connect this knowledge to their self-identity and how they use these as they develop teacher identity. This study utilized two focus groups, with a total of 14 participating SECA residents. Focus group data were collected and analyzed to better understand the developing identities of SECAs. Based on the findings from focus groups, we identified three themes and subthemes, related to their funds of knowledge and self-identity. We discuss implications and future research related to teacher residencies, special education teacher residencies, and teacher preparation.
Abbate-VaughnJ.PaughP. C. (2009). The paraprofessional-to-teacher pipeline: Barriers and accomplishments. Journal of Developmental Education, 33(1), 16.
2.
AldemanC. (2024). Where are all of the special educators?Education Next, 24(4), 38–43.
3.
ArmstrongJ. (2010). How effective are minimally trained/experienced volunteer mental health counsellors? Evaluation of CORE outcome data. Counselling and Psychotherapy Research, 10(1), 22–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/14733140903163284
4.
Baxter MagoldaM. B. (2001). Making their own way: Narratives for transforming higher education to promote self-development. Stylus.
5.
Baxter MagoldaM. B. (2007). Self-authorship: The foundation for twenty-first century education. New Directions for Teaching & Learning, 2007(109), 69–83. https://doi.org/10.1002/tl.266
6.
BettiniE.KimerlingJ.ParkY.MurphyK. M. (2015). Responsibilities and instructional time: Relationships identified by teachers in self-contained classes for students with emotional and behavioral disabilities. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 59(3), 121–128. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2013.859561
7.
BillingsleyB. (2004). Promoting teacher quality and retention in special education. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37(5), 370–376. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194040370050101
8.
BillingsleyB.BettiniE. (2019). Special education teacher attrition and retention: A review of the literature. Review of Educational Research, 89(5), 697–744. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654319862495
9.
BillingsleyB.BettiniE.WilliamsT. O. (2019). Teacher racial/ethnic diversity: Distribution of special and general educators of color across schools. Remedial and Special Education, 40(4), 199–212. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932517733047
10.
BillingsleyB.GriffinC.SmithS. J.KamanM.IsraelM. (2009). A review of teacher induction in special education: Research, practice, and technology solutions (NCIPP Doc No. RS-1). University of Florida, National Center to Inform Policy and Practice in Special Education Professional Development. https://ncipp.education.ufl.edu/files_6/NCIPP_Induc_010310.pdf
11.
BishtB.LeClairZ.LoebS.SunM. (2021). Paraeducators: Growth, diversity and a dearth of professional supports (EdWorkingPaper: 21-490). Annenberg Institute at Brown University. https://doi.org/10.26300/nk1z-c164
12.
BonnerP. J.PacinoM. A.StanfordB. H. (2011). Transition from paraprofessionals to bilingual teachers: Latino voices and experiences in education. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 10(3), 212–225. https://doi.10.1177/1538192711403483
13.
BothaC.MaraisE.ReynekeM. (2023). Self-authorship: A pedagogical tool for pre-service teachers to develop (Pre) professional identity. Education Sciences, 13(11), 1067. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13111067
14.
BraunV.ClarkeV. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101.
15.
BronsteinB.BreedenN.GloverT. A.ReddyL. A. (2021). Paraprofessionals’ perceptions of behavior problems in elementary school classrooms. The Journal of Special Education, 55(3), 153–162. http://doi.org/10.1177/0022466920961085
16.
BrownT. S.Stanton-ChapmanT. L. (2017). Experiences of paraprofessionals in U.S. preschool special education and general education classrooms. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 17(1), 18–30. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-3802.12095
17.
BursteinN.SearsS.WilcoxenA. (2023). Examining the effectiveness of special education residency programs in increasing the recruitment and retention of teachers in urban schools. Teacher Education Quarterly, 50(1), 28–52. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/27250447
18.
CantrellS. C.AlmasiJ. F.CarterJ. C.RintamaaM. (2013). Reading intervention in middle and high schools: Implementation fidelity, teacher efficacy, and student achievement. Reading Psychology, 34(1), 26–58. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2011.577695
19.
Carver-ThomasD.BurnsD.LeungM.OndrasekN. (2022). Teacher shortages during the pandemic: How California districts are responding. Learning Policy Institute. https://doi.org/10.54300/899.809
20.
ChuY. (2022). Sensemaking of university and district stakeholders in implementing a teacher residency policy in Louisiana. Journal of Teacher Education, 73(3), 240–252. https://doi.org/10.1177/00224871211059161
21.
ClewellB. C.VillegasA. M. (2001). Absence unexcused: Ending teacher shortages in high-need areas. Evaluating the Pathways to Teaching Careers Program. The Urban Institute. https://doi.org10.1037/e723442011-001
22.
CreswellJ. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). Sage.
23.
DayC. (2018). Professional identity matters: Agency, emotions, and resilience. In SchultzP. A.HongJ.FrancisD. C. (Eds.), Research on teacher identity: Mapping challenges and innovations, (pp.61–70). Springer.
24.
DayJ.NegroS. A.Mason-WilliamsL. (2024). The nationwide trends and preparation requirements of alternative route programs in special education. Teacher Education and Special Education, 47(2), 93–109. https://doi.org/10.1177/08884064231172525
EmersonR. W. (2021). Convenience sampling revisited: Embracing its limitations through thoughtful study design. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 115(1), 76–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145482X20987707
27.
EtscheidtS. (2005). Paraprofessional services for students with disabilities: A legal analysis of issues. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 30(2), 60–80. https://doi.org/10.2511/rpsd.30.2.60
28.
FengL.SassT. S.(2013). What makes special-education teachers special? Teacher training and achievement of students with disabilities. Economics of Education Review, 36, 122–134. https://doi.10.1016/j.econedurev.2013.06.006
29.
FogleK. C.PuaD.WiltB. (2024). Paraprofessional to teacher: Attracting and preparing special educators for a critical shortage. Teacher Education and Special Education, 47(3), 242–256. https://doi.org/10.1177/088840642412384
30.
GerstenR.FuchsL. S.WilliamsJ. P.BakerS. (2001). Teaching reading comprehension strategies to students with learning disabilities: A review of research. Review of Educational Research, 71(2), 279–320. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543071002279
31.
GiangrecoM. F.SuterJ. C.DoyleM. B. (2010). Paraprofessionals in inclusive schools: A review of recent research. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 20(1), 41–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/10474410903535356
32.
GibsonS.DemboM. H. (1984). Teacher efficacy: A construct validation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76(4), 569.
33.
GistC. D.BiancoM.LynnM. (2019). Examining grow your own programs across the teacher development continuum: Mining research on teachers of color and nontraditional educator pipelines. Journal of Teacher Education, 70(3), 13–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487118787504
34.
GoodwinA. L. (2023). Enduring problems, rethinking process, fullfilling promises: Reflections on the continued shortage of teachers of color. Journal of Teacher Education, 74(2), 167–170. https://doi.org/10.1177/00224871231160372
35.
GrinerA. C.WellmanD. K. (2024). Effective support strategies serving diverse teacher candidates in paraprofessional to teaching programs. International Journal of Teacher Education and Professional Development, 7(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJTEPD.361239
36.
HartshorneR.BaumgartnerE.Kaplan-RakowskiR.MouzaC.FerdigR. E. (2020). Special issue editorial: Preservice and inservice professional development during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 28(2), 137–147.
37.
HermanK. (2023). What we know now: Urban teacher residency models, teacher shortages, and equity. Issues in Teacher Education, 32(1), 56–73.
38.
IngersollR.MerrillL.MayH. (2014). What are the effects of teacher education and preparation on beginning teacher attrition? Research Report (#RR-82). University of Pennsylvania, Consortium for Policy Research in Education. https://repository.upenn.edu/handle/20.500.14332/8433
39.
Johnson-HarrisK. M.MundschenkN. A. (2014). Working effectively with students with BD in a general education classroom: The case for universal design for learning. The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 87(4), 168–174. https://doi.org/10.1080/00098655.2014.897927
40.
KarlenY.HirtC. N.JudJ.RosenthalA.EberliT. D. (2023). Teachers as learners and agents of self-regulated learning: The importance of different teachers’ competence aspects for promoting metacognition. Teaching and Teacher Education, 125, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2023.104055
41.
KavanaghS. S.Feiman-NemserS.HammernessK.MatskoK. K.WallaceJ. (2022). Stepping in or stepping on: Mentor teachers’ preferences for mentoring inside and outside of interactive teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 74(3), 274–287. https://doi.org/10.1177/00224871221142843
42.
KeganR. (1994). In over our heads: The mental demands of modern life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
KlassenR. M.TzeV. M. (2014). Teachers’ self-efficacy, personality, and teaching effectiveness: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 12, 59–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2014.06.001
45.
KlangN.GustafsonK.MöllåsG.NilholmC.GöranssonK. (2016). Enacting the role of special needs educator – six Swedish case studies. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 32(3), 391–405. https://doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2016.1240343
46.
KohliR.PizarroM. (2016). Fighting to educate our own: Teachers of color, relational accountability, and the struggle for racial justice. Equity & Excellence in Education, 49(1), 72–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10665684.2015.1121457
47.
KulkarniS. S.ChongM. M. (2021). Teachers of color implementing restorative justice practices in elementary classrooms: A DisCrit analysis. Equity & Excellence in Education, 54(4), 378–392. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665684.2021.2000519
48.
KumarR. (2019). Research methodology: A step-by-step guide for beginners (5th ed.). Sage.
49.
KuronjaM.ČagranB.KrajncM. S. (2019). Teachers’ sense of efficacy in their work with pupils with learning, emotional and behavioural difficulties. Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 24(1), 36–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632752.2018.1530499
MagoldaM. B. (2007). Self-authorship: The foundation for twenty-first century education. New Directions for Teaching & Learning, 2007(109), 69–83. https://doi.org/10.1002/tl.266
53.
MalinenO. P.SavolainenH.XuJ. (2012). Beijing in-service teachers’ self-efficacy and attitudes towards inclusive education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 28(4), 526–534. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2011.12.004
54.
MartinN. K.SassD. A.SchmittT. A. (2012). Teacher efficacy in student engagement, instructional management, student stressors, and burnout: A theoretical model using in-class variables to predict teachers’ intent-to-leave. Teaching and Teacher Education, 28(4), 546–559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2011.12.003
55.
MasonR. A.GunerselA. B.IrvinD. W.WillsH. P.GregoriE.AnZ. G.IngramP. B. (2021). From the frontlines: Perceptions of paraprofessionals’ roles and responsibilities. Teacher Education and Special Education, 44(2), 97–116. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406419896627
56.
Mason-WilliamsL. (2015). Unequal opportunities: A profile of the distribution of special education teachers. Exceptional Children, 81(2), 247–262. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402914551737
57.
MastropieriM. A. (2001). Is the glass half full or half empty? Challenges encountered by first- year special education teachers. The Journal of Special Education, 35(2), 66–74. https://doi.org/10.1177/002246690103500201
58.
MathewsH. M.RogersW. J.YoungsP. (2017). Sensemaking for beginning special educators. Teaching and Teacher Education, 67, 23–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.05.007
59.
MatskoK. K.RonfeldtM.NolanH. G.KlugmanJ.ReiningerM.BrockmanS. L. (2020). Cooperating teacher as model and coach: What leads to student teachers’ perceptions of preparedness?Journal of Teacher Education, 71(1), 41–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487118791992
MilesM. B.HubermanA. M.SaldañaJ. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: A methods sourcebook (3rd ed.). Sage.
62.
MilnerH. R.HoyA. W. (2003). A case study of an African American teacher’s self- efficacy, stereotype threat, and persistence. Teaching and Teacher Education, 19(2), 263–276.
63.
MollL. C.AmantiC.NeffD.GonzalezN. (1992). Funds of knowledge for teaching: Using a qualitative approach to connect homes and classrooms. Theory Into Practice, 31(2), 132–141. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1476399
64.
MyrieD. N.DowdN. T.LatikerM. D. (2024). Addressing the shortage of special education teachers of color: Implications for teacher education programs and K-12 systems. Social Sciences, 13, 622. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13110622
65.
National Center for Education Statistics. (2024a). School pulse panel: Staff hiring data 2024-2025. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences.
66.
National Center for Education Statistics. (2024b). Teacher turnover: Stayers, movers, and leavers. Condition of Education. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/slc
NieY.TanG. H.LiauA. K.LauS.ChuaB. L. (2013). The roles of teacher efficacy in instructional innovation: Its predictive relations to constructivist and didactic instruction. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 12, 67–77. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10671-012-9128-y
69.
NoonanJ. (2019). An affinity for learning: Teacher identity and powerful professional development. Journal of Teacher Education, 70(5), 526–537. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487118788838
70.
PatrickS. K.Darling-HammondL.KiniL. (2023). Educating teachers in California: What matters for teacher preparedness?Learning Policy Institute. https://doi.org/10.54300/956.678
ReichenbergJ. S.LochteH.KindzierskiC. M.EndeA. J.MaskellD.EliasC. A.HenryJ. J. (2023). Teacher residency as a path to teacher diversity: Negotiating tensions in role and identity. Excelsior: Leadership in Teaching and Learning, 15(2), 173–192. https://doi.org/10.14305/j n.19440413.2023.15.2.04
73.
RockM. L.BillingsleyB. (2014). From metaphorically speaking to acting boldly: A commentary on the special issue. Teacher Education and Special Education, 37(1), 71–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406413507720
74.
RodriguezK. L.SchwartzJ. L.LahmanM. K. E.GeistM. R. (2011). Culturally responsive focus groups: Reframing the research experience to focus on participants. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 10(4), 400–417. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940691101000407
RupparA. L.GaffneyJ. S.DymondS. K. (2015). Influences on teachers’ decisions about literacy for secondary students with severe disabilities. Exceptional Children, 81(2), 209–226. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402914551739
77.
SaldañaJ. (2021). The coding manual for qualitative researchers (4th ed.). Sage.
78.
SamudreM. D.LeJeuneL. M. (2023). The effect of feasible coaching supports on treatment fidelity to a multicomponent behavioral intervention. Elementary School Journal, 124(2), 322–342. https://doi.org/10.1086/727227
79.
SaundersR.FitzJ.diNapoliM. A.Jr.KiniT. (2024). Teacher residencies: State and federal policy to support comprehensive teacher preparation. Learning Policy Institute & EdPrepLab. https://doi.org/10.54300/358.825
80.
SelenK. S.Demirci GulerM. P. (2021). University-school cooperation: Perspectives of pre-service teachers, practice teachers and faculty members. Asian Journal of University Education, 17(1), 47–62. https://doi.org/10.24191/ajue.v17i1.12620
81.
SheltonA.CruzR. A. (2023). Leveraging the paraprofessional-to-teacher pipeline to attract and prepare special education teachers. Journal of Special Education Preparation, 3(2), 54–64. https://doi.org/10.33043/JOSEP.3.2.54-64
82.
StockerR. D. (2009). Professional development for the underserved educator: Developing the paraeducator as an instructional resource. University of Washington.
83.
ThoonenE. E.SleegersP. J.OortF. J.PeetsmaT. T.GeijselF. P. (2011). How to improve teaching practices: The role of teacher motivation, organizational factors, and leadership practices. Educational Administration Quarterly, 47(3), 496–536. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161X11400185
Tschannen-MoranM.HoyA. W.HoyW. K. (1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and measure. Review of Educational Research, 68, 202–248. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543068002202
Van De VenA. H. (2007). Engaged scholarship. Oxford University Press.
88.
VannestK. J.HarrisonJ. R.Temple-HarveyK.RamseyL.ParkerR. I. (2011). Improvement rate differences of academic interventions for students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Remedial and Special Education, 32(6), 521–534. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932510362509
89.
VernikoffL.GoodwinA. L.HornC.AkinS. (2022). Urban residents’ place-based funds of knowledge: An untapped resource in urban teacher residencies. Urban Education, 57(1), 32–57. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085918801887
90.
Woolfolk-HoyA.HoyW. K.DavisH. A. (2009). Teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs. In WentzelK. R.WigfieldA. (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 627–653). Routledge.
